The Central Role of the State in the Governance of Sport and the Olympic Movement in Tunisia, from 1956 to the Present Day

Abstract

This paper examines the relationship between sport and the Tunisian state, focusing on the issues of governance and regulation. Identified are three periods: from independence to the coup d'état (20 March 1956-7 November 1987), where sport was a component of national identity; Ben Ali's regime taking control of the Olympic Movement, 1987-2011; and Post-2011, which witnessed attempts to achieve democracy. Descriptions of the situation in each of the three periods are followed by analyses of sports policies (objectives, resources, and results), legislation, turning points, and tensions. Tunisia can be thought of as a 'promontory' between its neighbours around the Mediterranean and the Sahara Desert, a meeting point of influences from the Middle East, Africa, and the Mediterranean. The country was absorbed into the French Empire in 1881 following a major financial crisis and did not achieve internal autonomy until 1954. It was finally granted full independence in 1956. 1 Tunisia's history since independence can be divided into three periods: the Bourguiba years (1956-1987), the Ben Ali years (1987-2011), and the 'transition' set in motion by the Tunisian revolution, which helped trigger the so-called ' Arab Spring' of 2011 by deposing Ben Ali's dictatorial regime and making way for a fledgling democracy. However, these 60 years of independent government have failed to solve Tunisia's economic, demographic, and social problems, and the country can still be characterized as 'underdeveloped'. 2 As in many other independent nation states in the Arab world and Africa, all of Tunisia's post-independence leaders have been aware of sport's value as a component of national identity, 3 with the result that politics has played a major role in shaping sport. 4 In its determination to create a modern society, Tunisia's first post-independence government immediately began defining the country's geopolitical, cultural, and sporting position. 5 President Habib Bourguiba quickly realized that sport was an excellent vehicle for consolidating and legitimizing the young nation state, thanks to its power in building national unity and obtaining international recognition: 'We need to be present at sports competitions, whether Arab, Mediterranean or worldwide … The prestige provided by

Who wins the paralympic medals? An analysis of the socio-economic determinants

“…At present, there is only a small number of countries remain pure communist or non-democratic. In other words, the methodology used by Johnson and Ali (2004) may not be suitable for today's world (see also Zaoui and Bayle, 2017). Therefore, instead of using the political regime, we employ the democracy index (Democracy) compiled by the Economist Intelligence Unit of the United Kingdom to categorize the type of political regime for each country.…”