The Carob Tree: Botany, Horticulture, and Genetic Resources

Touš, J.; Romero, Agustí; Batlle, I.

doi:10.1002/9781118707418.ch08

Cited by 41 publications

(96 citation statements)

References 78 publications

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“…The carob ( Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a leguminous tree (Fabaceae) considered a minor or underutilized crop that is encountered in feral and selected forms throughout the Mediterranean basin. A renewed interest in carob fruit is driven by the crop’s resilience to abiotic stress exacerbated by climate change in the Mediterranean [ 1 ], as well as a growing demand for both carob pulp and seed by the food industry [ 2 ]. Carob pulp is primarily exploited for the high calorific value of its pulp that is rich in sugars (40–56%) and for its seed germ, which is the source of galactomannans that comprise the locust bean gum (LBG) used widely as a food stabilizer [ 3 , 4 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The carob presents a unique phenological profile compared to other Mediterranean fruits as it blooms in late-summer to autumn (September to mid-November), and the fruit develops and ripens on the tree for an exceptionally long period of 10–11 months [ 1 ]. Fruit growth is sigmoidal, progressing slowly in the winter, followed by fast growth in the spring and slowing down in the summer before coming to a halt in June–August when, at ripening, dehydration and coloration of the pod take place [ 11 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Fruit growth is sigmoidal, progressing slowly in the winter, followed by fast growth in the spring and slowing down in the summer before coming to a halt in June–August when, at ripening, dehydration and coloration of the pod take place [ 11 ]. The exact chronology of fruit ripening can be influenced putatively by various factors, including the growth environment (especially altitude), alternate bearing (“on” or “off” crop year) and genotype [ 1 , 12 ]. Natural pod abscission signals the end of the ripening process; however, the resistance to fruit drop differs between cultivars, with some having a high resistance to abscission (e.g., “Tylliria”, “Ramillete” and “Negra”), while others, low (e.g., “Rojal”, “Koundourka” and “Sfax” [ 3 ]).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Mapping the Primary and Secondary Metabolomes of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Fruit and Its Postharvest Antioxidant Potential at Critical Stages of Ripening

et al. 2021

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Six critical stages corresponding to major morphophysiological events in carob fruit ripening were defined, and changes in the primary and secondary metabolome and in vitro antioxidant capacity were examined in two genotypes collected at low (15 m) and high (510 m) altitudes from genetically identified and georeferenced trees. Soluble carbohydrates were analyzed by HPLC-RI, macro-minerals by ion chromatography coupled to conductivity detection and polyphenols by UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS. spectroscopy facilitated assays for condensed tannins and in vitro free-radical scavenging capacity of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). The fruit respiration rate and moisture content declined sharply during the transition from the breaker to green pedicel stage. Sugar accumulation spiked at the onset of fruit coloration and culminated at 498.7 ± 8.4 mg g−1 dry weight (dw) in the late ripe stage, while the ratio of reducing sugars to sucrose decreased from 3.45 ± 0.32 to 0.41 ± 0.02. The total phenolic compounds and condensed tannins declined with ripening, particularly during the transition from the breaker to green pedicel stage. Eighteen polyphenols were identified and quantitated, with catechins and hydrolyzable tannins being dominant until the onset of fruit coloration. The transition to the green pedicel stage signaled a precipitous decline (90.9%) in catechins, hydrolyzable tannins (60.2%) and flavonol glycosides (52.1%) concomitant to the rise in gallic acid, which was putatively fueled by the enzymatic hydrolysis of gallotannins in immature fruit. Catechins, hydrolyzable tannins and flavone glycosides were more abundant at higher altitudes and gallic acid at lower altitudes. An antioxidant capacity was also favored by higher elevations and declined with ripening, particularly after the breaker stage. Correlations with FRAP and DPPH assays were significant for the total phenolic content, condensed tannins, catechins and hydrolyzable tannins. The highest correlation factors were obtained for epigallocatechin-gallate (r = 0.920 and r = 0.900; p < 0.01). Although the sharp drop in hydrolyzable and nonhydrolyzable tannins and catechins compromised the in vitro antioxidant capacity at physiological maturity, it also reduced the astringency and configured a palatable organoleptic fruit profile. These changes unraveled significant episodes in the ripening-related secondary metabolism of the carob fruit. They further highlighted the value of immature carob as a potent source of gallotannins, with putative in vivo anti-inflammatory action, and of catechins beneficial in preventing and protecting against diseases caused by oxidative stress.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Mapping the Primary and Secondary Metabolomes of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Fruit and Its Postharvest Antioxidant Potential at Critical Stages of Ripening

et al. 2021

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“…Favoring the endozoochory mechanism, carnivores jointly ingest seeds, rich in protein, and the pod, very rich in sugars (El‐Shatnawi & Ereifej ). Carob pods have been important in the diet of farm animals and have been eaten by humans throughout history in the Mediterranean (Zohary ; Tous et al ). Larger fruit size and high edibility (Papaefstathiou et al ) may have been reasons carob seeds were far more common in carnivore scats at the SECIL‐Outão quarry than seeds from Strawberry tree and Common myrtle as well as olives that were not found.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Endozoochory of a dry‐fruited tree aids quarry passive restoration and seed soaking further increases seedling emergence

Salgueiro

Silva

Eufrázio

et al. 2020

Restoration Ecology

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As practitioners promote passive restoration as a complementary approach to technical reclamation, it is imperative to know its drivers. Although the consequences of endozoochory can be crucial to passive restoration success, few experimental studies assess the use of heavily disturbed sites by seed dispersers such as carnivores and how the seeds they bring in emerge and survive. Using an indoor sowing experiment conducted in a quarry located within a natural park in Portugal, we examined for the first time how carnivore endozoochorous seeds collected in the quarry potentially influence its passive restoration, through effects on plant emergence and survival. Also, we tested whether sowing date and water soaking, relevant factors when sowings are to be carried out, would affect seedling emergence and mortality rates when compared with the effect of endozoochory. Our target species were included in the revegetation plan of the quarry, of which endozoochorous seeds of Carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua) were collected in sufficient number for analysis. Irrespective of the carnivore species, endozoochorous carob seeds performed similarly to untreated seeds regarding emergence rates. Endozoochorous carob seedlings showed greater mortality rates but the net result for the plant can still be the colonization of recently vacant habitats by a large proportion of viable seeds. Concerning sowing date, the later carob seeds were sown over the fruit-ripening season the faster seedlings emerged. Water soaking increased emergence rate by 6.5 times. Broadly, sowings with previous soaking and carnivore-mediated seed dispersal of this dry-fruited tree can jointly enhance quarry restoration. Implications for Practice• Restorers can undertake pilot sowing experiments prior to large-scale revegetation campaigns to identify which species benefit the most from endozoochory. • Carnivores in the surroundings of a quarry contribute a large proportion of viable seeds, likely assisting quarry passive restoration. • Carnivores ingesting carob seeds later in the fruiting season may assist quarry passive revegetation more readily as seeds ingested around that time emerge earlier. • Immersion in tap water is a simple, inexpensive, and highly efficient method to break physical dormancy when carob seed sowings are to be carried out in degraded sites.

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“…Favoring the endozoochory mechanism, carnivores jointly ingest seeds, rich in protein, and the pod, very rich in sugars (El-Shatnawi & Ereifej 2001). Carob pods have been important in the diet of farm animals and have been eaten by humans throughout history in 15 the Mediterranean (Zohary 2002;Tous et al 2013). Larger fruit size and high edibility (Papaefstathiou et al 2018) may have been reasons carob seeds were far more common in carnivore scats at the SECIL-Outão quarry than seeds from Strawberry tree and Common myrtle, our other a priori target species.…”

Section: Endozoochory Of a Dry-fruited Tree Into A Quarrymentioning

confidence: 99%

Carnivore endozoochory of a dry-fruited tree can benefit quarry passive restoration

Salgueiro

Silva

Eufrázio

et al. 2019

Preprint

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Implications for practice: Restorers can undertake pilot sowing experiments prior to large scale revegetation campaigns to identify which species can benefit the most from endozoochory. Carnivores in the surroundings of a quarry contribute a large proportion of viable seeds, likely assisting quarry passive restoration. Carnivores ingesting carob seeds later in the fruiting season may assist quarry passive revegetation more readily as seeds ingested around that time emerge earlier. Immersion in tap water is a simple, inexpensive, and a highly efficient method to break physical dormancy when carob seed sowings are to be carried out in degraded sites.3 Abstract:As practitioners promote passive restoration as a complementary approach to technical reclamation, it is imperative to understand the mechanisms such as endozoochory. Although the consequences of endozoochory can be crucial to passive restoration success, few experimental studies assess the use of heavily disturbed sites by seed dispersers such as carnivores and how the seeds they bring in emerge and survive. Using an indoor sowing experiment conducted in a quarry located within a natural park in Portugal, we examined for the first time how carnivore endozoochorous seeds collected in the quarry potentially influence its passive restoration, through effects on plant emergence and survival. Also, we tested whether sowing date and water soaking, relevant factors when sowings are to be carried out, would affect seedling emergence and survival rates when compared with the effect of endozoochory. Most interesting in our analysis were the results for Carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), a dry-fruited species that was also being used in an artificial revegetation action at the quarry. Irrespective of the carnivore species, endozoochorous carob seeds performed similarly to untreated seeds regarding emergence rates. Endozoochorous carob seedlings showed greater mortality rates but the net result for the plant can still be the colonization of recently vacant habitats by a large proportion of viable seeds. The later carob seeds were sown, the faster seedlings emerged, including endozoochorous seedlings. Water soaking increased emergence rate by 6.5 times. Broadly, plantings, sowings with previous soaking, and carnivore-mediated seed dispersal of this dry-fruited tree can jointly enhance quarry restoration.

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The Carob Tree: Botany, Horticulture, and Genetic Resources

Cited by 41 publications

References 78 publications

Mapping the Primary and Secondary Metabolomes of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Fruit and Its Postharvest Antioxidant Potential at Critical Stages of Ripening

Mapping the Primary and Secondary Metabolomes of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Fruit and Its Postharvest Antioxidant Potential at Critical Stages of Ripening

Endozoochory of a dry‐fruited tree aids quarry passive restoration and seed soaking further increases seedling emergence

Carnivore endozoochory of a dry-fruited tree can benefit quarry passive restoration

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