The Bioarchaeology of Artificial Cranial Modifications

Earliest-known intentionally deformed human cranial fossil from Asia and the initiation of hereditary hierarchy in the early Holocene

“…Various ritualized and costly actions, such as firewalking, ritual scarification, and subincision, are theorized as credibility enhancing displays that could promote group solidarity and intragroup cooperation, and they reflect a deep level of commitment to group ideologies and religious beliefs (40). The practice of ICD is such a ritualized and costly action that results in highly visible and permanent life-long body modification that even extends beyond an individual's lifespan (41,42,7). Differing from other typical body treatments, ICD is performed by the parental generation and applied to the descendant generation (a cross-generational action).…”

“…ICD is a ritualized and crossgenerational cultural practice that results in an easily recognizable flat, elongated, or a conical vault shape in adulthood. The practice of ICD and its associated meme are regarded as a significant way to symbolize social identity and embody cultural beliefs, with the results signifying group affiliation, or demonstrating social status (7).…”

“…ICD has a rich historic and prehistoric record in cultures around the world (8-12, 7) that probably continues today (13). Although the practice of ICD has been suspected in the Neanderthals (14) and a latest Pleistocene human from the Upper Cave of the Zhoukoudian locality in China (15), these suggestions have been seriously challenged (at least they were not intentinally deformed) (16,17,7). The earliest known preserved skulls that undoubtedly exhibit ICD are from the early Holocene (about 10000 -12000 years ago) in the central Murray River region of southeastern Australia and the Proto-Neolithic deposits in Shanidar Cave in Iraq (18)(19)(20) (see Supplementary Information).…”

Generalized Procrustes analysis of an ontogenetic series of modified crania: Evaluating the technique of modification in the Migration Period of Europe (4th–7th century AD)

“…Intentional cranial modification is a cultural practice where members of a social group mold the soft cranial bones of an infant into desired shape by applying tight bandages. Once the cranial bones ossify the modified head serves as a visible mark of affinity with a social group (Tiesler, ). Evidence for the practice of intentional cranial modification in the Mtskheta region of the Republic of Georgia exists from the third millennium BC, but it became far more prevalent after the fourth century AD corresponding to the Migration Period (4–7 AD) in Europe (Dingwall, ; Kiszely, ).…”

“…These bones are intramembranous in ossification, with most of their growth occurring during the first and part of the second year, when sutures take up the mechanical stress from the growth of the brain, while sutural margins provide sites of bone growth through apposition (Rice, ). Caregivers maintain the bindings for the first few years of life while the bones are malleable and sutures unfused (Tiesler, ). The pressure from the bindings initiates premature closure of the sutures and changes the normal direction of cranial growth, with compensatory growth occurring perpendicular to the closure (Gerszten, ; Gerszten & Gerszten, ; Hukki, Saarinen, & Kangasniemi, ; Rice, ; Tiesler, ).…”