The archaeometry of ochre sensu lato: A review

Popelka-Filcoff, Rachel S.; Zipkin, Andrew M.

doi:10.1016/j.jas.2021.105530

Cited by 27 publications

(17 citation statements)

References 128 publications

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“…Submicrometric hematite can be available in nature [ 82 , 83 ] or result from anthropic manipulation (either grinding or firing) [ 49 , 50 , 84 ]). The characteristics of the materials identified in group 3 (low Fe % amount in clay matrix) are more likely related to a natural red ochre [ 2 , 11 , 41 , 59 ] which was probably only grinded. On the contrary, the high amount of pseudo-rounded submicrometric hematite identified in paint mixtures 1, 2 and the elongated shape detected in group 4 open the question of whether it could have resulted from firing any ferruginous raw materials.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Regarding the composition and characterization of the red pictorial layers, as already mentioned, all of them are hematite based. Hematite and/or iron-rich compounds like red natural ochres [41] are the most common minerals used in rock art paintings around the world, Levantine and Schematic art included [1][2][3][4]11]. Through the results of the SEM-EDX and micro-Raman analyses of the cross-sections we have identified four different pictorial recipes or paint mixtures (group 1-4), all with their own characteristics in both elemental compositions and vibrational profiles (Table 2).…”

Section: Plos Onementioning

confidence: 99%

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Characterizing paint technologies and recipes in Levantine and Schematic rock art: El Carche site as a case study (Jalance, Spain)

et al. 2022

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This paper contributes to current debates on the technologies and practices of prehistoric artists using the rock art site of el Carche (Jalance, Spain) as a case study. The site preserves both Levantine and Schematic paintings, yet poorly understood from an analytical point of view. In the past, it has even been argued how little differentiation there is between these two post-Paleolithic traditions in terms of paint composition. Our aim with this paper was to identify pigments, paint recipes and technologies and decipher the order of the superimpositions, both between Levantine motifs of different styles, and between these and the Schematic ones. To do so, we adopted a multi-stage and multi-technical analytical strategy, trying to find a balance between sound scientific investigation and impact on the art, considering the irreplaceable nature of this World Heritage rock art. As such, our approach begins with in situ non-invasive investigations using portable EDXRF, to then collect micro-samples for non-destructive analyses by means of Optical Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman Spectroscopy and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). One of the key highlights of these paper is the identification of up to four different paint compositions, produced with various hematite-based raw materials and different processing techniques. This variability had not been previously documented. Interestingly though, no direct correlations appear to exist between styles or sub-styles and recipes. Some of these paint mixtures were even shared by both traditions. These results are discussed in cultural terms, challenging previous interpretations suggesting a similar pigment composition between Levantine and Schematic art. Microstratigraphic analysis of the cross-sections only partially clarified the overlapping sequence unveiling the complexity of these analysis. They also revealed several degradation layers and external crusts related to rock alteration processes and biological formations. Their role in rock art conservation is also discussed.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Plos Onementioning

confidence: 99%

Characterizing paint technologies and recipes in Levantine and Schematic rock art: El Carche site as a case study (Jalance, Spain)

et al. 2022

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“…Principal component analysis was performed on FTIR and XRF data using The Unscrambler X (v. 10.5.1) from CAMO Software version 10.5.1. As shown in previous studies [29,35,54], earth pigments can be highly heterogeneous and difficult to differentiate without the use of multivariate statistics. PCA is a powerful data-mining technique that can be used for exploratory analysis, to reduce data dimensionality and extract more interpretable information about the system under investigation [55,56].…”

Section: Multivariate Data Analysismentioning

confidence: 91%

“…As it is well documented in the literature, the complex chemistry and the occurrence of multicomponent mixtures makes the analysis of earth pigments challenging, and thus, for a complete characterization, a multi-analytical approach is most often necessary [35,36]. Earth pigments have been intensively studied over time via a wide range of analytical techniques .…”

Section: Groupmentioning

confidence: 99%

Assessment of Easily Accessible Spectroscopic Techniques Coupled with Multivariate Analysis for the Qualitative Characterization and Differentiation of Earth Pigments of Various Provenance

et al. 2022

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Natural minerals and earths with coloring properties have been widely used as artistic pigments since prehistoric times. Despite being extensively studied, the complex chemistry of earth pigments is still unsatisfactory described with respect to their mineralogical and structural variability and origin. In this study, a large group of earth pigments from various geographical locations was investigated using easily accessible spectroscopic techniques and multivariate analysis with the aim to identify distinctive mineralogical and chemical characteristics of natural pigment sources. Portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and fiberoptic Raman spectroscopy were used for the elemental, molecular and structural characterization of the investigated pigments. Diagnostic spectral features and chemical patterns (fingerprints) were identified and discussed with respect to their geological sources. Due to the occurrence of similar accompanying minerals, it was observed that the differentiation of red and yellow ochers is more challenging compared to green, brown and black pigments. However, for some of the investigated pigments, the presence of certain accessory minerals and/or of certain chemical patterns can have diagnostic value. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the FTIR and XRF data matrices showed promising results in terms of geological attribution, highlighting a promising tool for provenance research. The results of the study demonstrate the potential benefits of this rapid and nondestructive approach for the characterization and differentiation of earth pigments with similar hues coming from different geological sources.

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“…It is expected that red ocher causes changes at the micro-scale, creating a map of microenvironments in accord with their abundance. Until now, most studies on red ocher focused specifically on the ocher “nature” (see a review in [ 23 ]), ignoring the fact that the physical-chemical conditions of the parent soil will condition the processes that dominate both inside and outside the ocher area. A pedological analyses of soils with different amounts of red ochre would be necessary to shed light on the dominant processes (preservation or degradation), which are associated with red ocher in a specific burial.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Preservation of microscopic fur, feather, and bast fibers in the Mesolithic ochre grave of Majoonsuo, Eastern Finland

et al. 2022

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The study of animal and plant fibers related to grave furnishing, garments, and grave goods in thousands-of-year-old burials provides new insights into these funerary practices. Their preservation presupposes favorable conditions, where bacterial and fungal activity is at a minimum, as in anaerobic, wet, salty, arid, or frozen environments. The extreme acidic-soil environments (i.e., podzols) of Finland pose a challenge when it comes to studying funerary deposits, as human remains are rarely found. However, its potential to preserve microparticles allows us to approach the funerary event from a totally different point of view. Here, we present the first multiproxy analyses of a Mesolithic deposit from Finland. A red-ochre burial of a child found in Majoonsuo is studied by analyzing 1) microscopic fibers, 2) fatty acids, and 3) physical-chemical (CIELab color, pH, grain size) properties of 60 soil samples and associated materials. The microscopic fibers evidenced the remains of waterfowl downy feathers, a falcon feather fragment, canid and small rodent hairs as well as bast fibers. These could have been used in furnishing the grave and as ornaments or clothes. Canid hairs could belong to a dog inhumation, or more likely to canid fur used as grave good/clothes. Samples with microparticles have more long-chain and unsaturated fatty acids, although animal species identification was not possible. Soil properties indicate that the burial was made in the local soil, adding homogeneous red ochre and removing the coarser material; no bioturbation was found. The highly acidic sandy soil, together with a slight increase in finer particles when ochre is abundant, probably resulted in micro-scale, anoxic conditions that prevented bacterial attack. This study reveals the first animal hairs and feathers from a Finnish Mesolithic funerary context, and provides clues about how their preservation was possible.

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The archaeometry of ochre sensu lato: A review

Cited by 27 publications

References 128 publications

Characterizing paint technologies and recipes in Levantine and Schematic rock art: El Carche site as a case study (Jalance, Spain)

Characterizing paint technologies and recipes in Levantine and Schematic rock art: El Carche site as a case study (Jalance, Spain)

Assessment of Easily Accessible Spectroscopic Techniques Coupled with Multivariate Analysis for the Qualitative Characterization and Differentiation of Earth Pigments of Various Provenance

Preservation of microscopic fur, feather, and bast fibers in the Mesolithic ochre grave of Majoonsuo, Eastern Finland

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