The appearance, disappearance and reappearance of plasmalogens in evolution

Abstract

Plasmalogens, 1-O-alk-1'-enyl 2-acyl glycerol phospholipids and glycolipids, seem to have evolved first in anaerobic bacteria, but they did not persist when facultative and aerobic species appeared after the concentration of oxygen increased in the early earth's history. Later, when aerobic animal cells appeared with their mitochondria and other intracellular organelles, plasmalogen biosynthesis requiring molecular oxygen, reappeared. The possible reasons for the disappearance and reappearance of plasmalogens in the evolution of life on earth are discussed. The sensitivity of plasmalogens to reactive oxygen species may have caused their disappearance when respiration first evolved. Special features of plasmalogen structure and the resulting lipid packing may account for their reappearance.

Mono- and Dialkyl Glycerol Ether Lipids in Anaerobic Bacteria: Biosynthetic Insights from the Mesophilic Sulfate Reducer Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans PF2803 T

“…5a) of the 1-Oalkyl chain of a phosphorylethanolamine derivative of AAG. Plasmalogens are also widespread in anaerobes (e.g., 6, 51, 53), but the pathway and mechanism for anaerobic plasmalogen biosynthesis, which differ from that in higher (aerobic) organisms, remain incompletely understood (12,13). Aside from the absence of oxygen, isotopic experiments have suggested G3P instead of DHAP as an intermediate in the anaerobic pathway to plasmalogen (51,54,55) (Fig.…”

“…These lipids likely play a role in cell resistance to adverse environmental conditions. Plasmalogens are also widespread in mammalian and human tissues, where they can have a number of important biological functions such as intracellular signaling (in response to stimuli) or a protective role during oxidant-induced stress (11,12). There are indications that plasmalogens have distinct biosynthetic pathways in animal tissues and (anaerobic) bacteria, but mechanistic and evolutionary aspects remain unclear (12)(13)(14).…”

Lipid diversity among botulinum neurotoxin-producing clostridia

“…The presence of the acyl forms of these lipids is predicted based on the presence of genes annotated as pss, psd, pgpA or -B and cls. All three phospholipids are rich in plasmalogens (1-O-alk-19-enyl ether lipids), which have been found in many anaerobic, but not in aerobic or facultative bacteria (Goldfine & Johnston, 2005;Goldfine, 2010b). In addition, 5.4 % of the polar lipids of C. sporogenes were N-acetylglucosylaminyl-diradylglycerol (GlcNAcDRG) and 3.0 % were a recently discovered phosphoethanolaminemodified GlcNAcDRG (EtnP-GlcNAcDRG; Johnston et al, 2010), both of which contained substantial amounts of the plasmalogen form (Fig.…”

Mutations Associated with Reduced Surotomycin Susceptibility in Clostridium difficile and Enterococcus Species

“…First, the membrane structure of C. difficile appears to be distinct. C. difficile 630, like other clostridia (74), possesses membrane phospholipids with plasmalogen (having an ether, instead of ester, linkage at the sn-1 position of glycerol) fatty acid tails (55). C. difficile 630 produces phosphatidylglycerol, cardiolipin, and monohexosyldiradylglycerol lipids of both plasmalogen and di-or tetra-acyl forms (55).…”

“…Whether these lipids are differentially distributed in the C. difficile membrane is unknown. The genes required for clostridial plasmalogen biosynthesis have not been identified (74). Overall, the literature on C. difficile membrane structure and composition is very limited (55,75).…”