The Antiviral Properties of Human Milk: A Multitude of Defence Tools from Mother Nature

Abstract

The anti-infective properties of breast milk have been known for decades. In recent years, an increasing number of papers have described the variety of bioactive compounds that are present in breast milk with varying degrees of antiviral activity. However, to date, the totality of the properties of these compounds is not fully understood and, above all, their synergistic interaction is not yet known. The purpose of this review is to describe the current knowledge about the antiviral compounds in breast milk, both with specific and non-specific action against pathogens. Due to the current pandemic situation from SARS-CoV-2 (Severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus-2), research has focused on a multitude of potential antiviral substances, taking breast milk as a biological model of reference. Future research is needed to expand the knowledge of these compounds, which will hopefully assist in the development of therapies applicable even at later ages.

Modulation of Gut Microbiota for the Prevention and Treatment of COVID-19

“…Lactoferrin is an iron chelating milk bioactive peptide. Due to its beneficial effects on the development of the gut as well as disease prevention and therapy through anti-inflammatory and anti-viral effects, lactoferrin has been suggested as a therapy for COVID-19 [90,91]. An in vitro study in Caco-2 cells showed that lactoferrin inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication through promoting anti-viral gene expression and reducing the expression of genes necessary for viral replication including RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and E gene (CoVE) [92].…”

Human Milk, More Than Simple Nourishment

“…Their concentration decreases in the first 12 weeks after birth, in accordance with an increase in the newborn's own production [14,15]. In addition to providing a passive immunity, breast milk IgAs bind to gut bacteria, hindering their overgrowth, inhibiting pathogens' attachment to the gastrointestinal mucosal surface and neutralizing microbial toxins, thus conferring an antimicrobial defense to the neonatal gastrointestinal tract [16].…”

“…In particular, IgA levels have been reported to be lower in the mature milk of mothers with gestational diabetes, post-partum stress, anxiety and depression [14]. Furthermore, high levels of IgA, cytokines, oligosaccharides and other immune factors in human milk are associated with a lower risk of food allergy during childhood [15,16]. In their study, Joseph et al showed that lower allergy prevalence was associated with higher transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) levels in breast milk [21].…”

“…This evidence suggested a relevant contribution played by breast milk in the correct development of the immune system which, eventually, is connected with better future health outcomes. Emerging evidence has demonstrated that, through breast milk, the mammary gland supplies not only for the bacterial part of the microbiome but also for the viral one, called the virome [16]. The human milk virome includes eukaryotic viruses, bacteriophages and other viral particles which are considered safe and favorable to the neonate's health, whereas they seem to inhibit the transmission of pathogenic viral strains [41].…”

Possible response of molecular biotechnology to call SARS-CoV-2

“…Поскольку перегрузка железом способствует развитию СOVID-19, были предприняты по иски хелаторов, которые привели исследователей к обнаружению эффективного природного железосвязывающего гликопротеина -лактоферрина [40].…”