The Adolescent Outcome of Hyperactive Children Diagnosed By Research Criteria—III. Mother–Child Interactions, Family Conflicts and Maternal Psychopathology

Abstract

The present study reports the results of a prospective, 8-year follow-up study of 100 hyperactive and 60 normal children followed from childhood into adolescence. Ratings of child behavior problems and family conflicts as well as direct observations of mother-child interactions were taken in childhood and again at adolescent follow-up. At outcome, hyperactives continued to have more conduct and learning problems and to be more hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive than controls. Hyperactives were also rated by their mothers as having more numerous and intense family conflicts than the normal controls, although the adolescents in both groups did not differ in their own ratings of these conflicts. Observations of mother-adolescent interactions at outcome found the hyperactive dyads displaying more negative and controlling behaviors and less positive and facilitating behaviors towards each other than in the normal dyads. These interaction patterns were significantly related to similar patterns in mother-child interactions observed 8 years earlier. Mothers of hyperactives also reported more personal psychological distress than normal mothers at outcome. Further analyses of subgroups of hyperactives at outcome, formed on the presence or absence of ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), indicated that the presence of ODD accounted for most of the differences between hyperactives and normals on the interaction measures, ratings of home conflicts, and ratings of maternal psychological distress. Results suggest that the development and maintenance of ODD into adolescence in hyperactive children is strongly associated with aggression and negative parent-child interactions in childhood.

ADHD Correlates, Comorbidity, and Impairment in Community and Treated Samples of Children and Adolescents

“…In treated samples, a significant association has been reported between family burden / stress and ADHD (Barkley et al 1991;Fischer 1990). Studies with treatment samples also indicate that having a relative with ADHD, major depression or antisocial behaviors increases the risk of ADHD in the offspring (Barkley et al 1990;Biederman et al 1992).…”

“…Unlike children 11-17, younger participants were not interviewed with the DISC-IV and we wanted to compare prevalence rates across age-groups maintaining informant source constant. Also, data have suggested that parents (vs. youths) are more reliable informants for ascertaining the presence of ADHD (Barkley et al 1991;Bravo et al 2001;Schwab-Stone et al 1994;Jensen et al 1999). Logistic regression was used to estimate both crude and adjusted odds ratios when examining the correlates and patterns of comorbidity of ADHD.…”

“…Among family variables, negative parentchild relationship, parental negative discipline, and low levels of social support have also been identified as correlates of ADHD in treatment (Barkley et al 1991;Fischer 1990) and community samples (Keown and Woodward 2002;Woodward et al 1998). In treated samples, a significant association has been reported between family burden / stress and ADHD (Barkley et al 1991;Fischer 1990). Studies with treatment samples also indicate that having a relative with ADHD, major depression or antisocial behaviors increases the risk of ADHD in the offspring (Barkley et al 1990;Biederman et al 1992).…”

“…Among family variables, negative parentchild relationship, parental negative discipline, and low levels of social support have also been identified as correlates of ADHD in treatment (Barkley et al 1991;Fischer 1990) and community samples (Keown and Woodward 2002;Woodward et al 1998). …”

Etiological heterogeneity in the development of antisocial behavior: the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development and the Young Adult Follow-Up

“…Life-course-persistent antisocial behavior is also associated with a different set of childhood variables (Moffitt, 1990;Moffitt et al 1996;Moffitt & Caspi, 2001), and antisocial behavior co-morbid with ADHD shows a different profile of family risk factors (Lahey et al 1988;Moffitt, 1990;Barkley et al 1991;Hinshaw, 1994;Faraone et al 1995) and a more severe prognosis (Moffitt, 1990). The co-morbid type that begins earlier may also be more strongly genetically influenced (Silberg et al 1996).…”