The 2 × 2 Achievement Goals in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts: A Meta-Analytic Test of Context, Gender, Culture, and Socioeconomic Status Differences and Analysis of Motivations, Regulations, Affect, Effort, and Physical Activity Correlates

Abstract

Approach-avoidance achievement goals are studied extensively in the context of competitive sports and physical activity, including leisure and physical education. Building upon past meta-analyses, the purpose of this quantitative review was to provide basic descriptive data, estimated means for testing of several research questions (i.e., context, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status), and meta-analyzing outcome correlates (i.e., self-determination constructs, affect, effort, and physical activity). A total of 116 studies up to 1 December 2018, met inclusion criteria. These 116 studies, totaling a sample size of 43,133 participants (M sample size = 347.85 + 359.36), from 22 countries with 92.7% of samples, are drawn from participants less than 30 years of mean age. From the 116 unique studies, nearly half (49.6%) were from a sport context and the rest from leisure-time physical activity (PA) (19.4%) and physical education (PE) (31.0%) contexts. A number of different analyses were conducted to examine our research questions. Support was found for several of our research questions: The mastery-approach goal was endorsed more than all the other goals, while sport participants endorsed the performance-approach goal more than PA and PE groups; females endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal more than males; more culturally individualistic countries endorsed the mastery-approach goal; and countries from lower socioeconomic and interdependent countries endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal than higher socioeconomic and independent countries. Concerning, the meta-analyzed correlates, most relationships were hypothesized through the performance-approach goal, and both avoidance goals appeared to be too similar in relationships with the correlates raising theoretical concerns. Overall, the mastery-approach goals had the most meaningful biased corrected effect size values (rc) with the outcome correlates, such as relative autonomy (0.47), intrinsic motivation (0.52), effort (0.40), positive affect (0.42), physical activity intent (0.38). Based on the present and past meta-analytic results, the 2 × 2 achievement goals as currently measured was questioned. Future research suggestions included fundamental questionnaire issues, the need for latent profile analysis or other more advanced statistics, and whether the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework is the most appropriate framework in physical activity contexts.

Perceived Competence, Achievement Goals, and Return-To-Sport Outcomes: A Mediation Analysis

“…The valence (positive vs. negative) or motivational component of competence refers to the distinction between the motivation to approach positive/desirable events or possibilities, and avoidance motivation, where behavior is directed by an avoidance of a negative/undesirable event or possibility [22]. Thus, in the original 2 × 2 AGT framework, four goals-mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance-are theoretically possible [23,24]. Mastery-approach goals reflect an interest in improving one's personal performance, while mastery-avoidance goals reflect a desire to avoid performing worse than one aspires to.…”

“…Mastery-approach goals reflect an interest in improving one's personal performance, while mastery-avoidance goals reflect a desire to avoid performing worse than one aspires to. Performance-approach goals are characterized by a desire to outperform others, while performance avoidance-goals are reflected in the desire to avoid performing worse than one's peers or normative standards [23,24]. Here, we briefly review relevant empirical evidence prior to introducing Elliot and colleagues' novel 3 × 2 AGT framework [25] and the current study.…”

“…Mastery approach (MAp) goals are suggested to be the most adaptive achievement goal and have been shown to positively predict beneficial outcomes such as intrinsic motivation and enjoyment in sport [26], positive affect [27], well-being [28], and performance [29]. Meta-analytic findings have emphasized the importance of MAp thought patterns as a general performance enhancement strategy, indicated by moderate effect sizes [23,24]. Mastery-avoidance (MAv) goals are believed to have a more maladaptive pattern of consequences than MAp goals [30], with evidence suggesting a positive association with amotivation [31], threat appraisals [27], low self-esteem [32], anxiety [33], and negative affect [34].…”

“…Performance-approach (PAp) goals reveal an assortment of adaptive and maladaptive outcomes [23,24]. Adaptive outcomes from adopting PAp goals include enhanced perceptions of self-confidence [35], well-being [28], and performance [23], while maladaptive outcomes include threat appraisals [36], self-handicapping [37], emotional and physical exhaustion [32], and negative reactions to imperfection [38].…”

“…A plethora of literature exists on the 2 × 2 dichotomous model of achievement goal theory in sport [12,24,42,46], although none in the context of sports injury. Moreover, aside from a handful of studies in educational [47][48][49] and sport settings [50,51], there is a dearth of research conducted using the 3 × 2 model of achievement and no work currently focused on sport injury.…”