The 15th anniversary of the Portuguese drug policy: Its history, its success and its future

Cabral, Tiago S

doi:10.1177/2050324516683640

Cited by 21 publications

(21 citation statements)

References 14 publications

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“…Despite the fact that exposing animals to multiple rewards makes dissecting the neurobiological effects of each reward more complex, it brings preclinical models closer to the intricate human experience. Akin to Portugal, a few countries combat addiction and the social marginalization associated with it by offering treatment, support services and enforcing harm reduction policies (Cabral, 2017). These could be considered the clinical equivalent of enriched environment or social interaction, and the success of such drug policy supports the idea that, by implementing similar strategies, drug abuse can be greatly decreased.…”

Section: Alternative Rewardsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Understanding Addiction Using Animal Models

Kuhn

Kalivas

Bobadilla

2019

Front. Behav. Neurosci.

126

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Drug addiction is a neuropsychiatric disorder with grave personal consequences that has an extraordinary global economic impact. Despite decades of research, the options available to treat addiction are often ineffective because our rudimentary understanding of drug-induced pathology in brain circuits and synaptic physiology inhibits the rational design of successful therapies. This understanding will arise first from animal models of addiction where experimentation at the level of circuits and molecular biology is possible. We will review the most common preclinical models of addictive behavior and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each. This includes non-contingent models in which animals are passively exposed to rewarding substances, as well as widely used contingent models such as drug self-administration and relapse. For the latter, we elaborate on the different ways of mimicking craving and relapse, which include using acute stress, drug administration or exposure to cues and contexts previously paired with drug self-administration. We further describe paradigms where drug-taking is challenged by alternative rewards, such as appetitive foods or social interaction. In an attempt to better model the individual vulnerability to drug abuse that characterizes human addiction, the field has also established preclinical paradigms in which drug-induced behaviors are ranked by various criteria of drug use in the presence of negative consequences. Separation of more vulnerable animals according to these criteria, along with other innate predispositions including goal- or sign-tracking, sensation-seeking behavior or impulsivity, has established individual genetic susceptibilities to developing drug addiction and relapse vulnerability. We further examine current models of behavioral addictions such as gambling, a disorder included in the DSM-5, and exercise, mentioned in the DSM-5 but not included yet due to insufficient peer-reviewed evidence. Finally, after reviewing the face validity of the aforementioned models, we consider the most common standardized tests used by pharmaceutical companies to assess the addictive potential of a drug during clinical trials.

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Section: Alternative Rewardsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Understanding Addiction Using Animal Models

Kuhn

Kalivas

Bobadilla

2019

Front. Behav. Neurosci.

126

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“…Aspects of the United Nations (UN) Declaration of Human Rights such as ‘freedom from fear’ and Articles 2 and 3, which cover ‘freedom of opinion’ and ‘liberty’, in addition to Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), which covers ‘freedom from discrimination’, could be relevant to use of the substances discussed (ECHR, 2010; UN, 1948). While there are exceptions such as the Portuguese legal system which treats drug use as a health issue (Cabral, 2017), international laws typically criminalise the use of psychoactive drugs. However, the widespread punitive approach, popularly termed the War on Drugs , has not escaped criticism (Heinze and Armas-Castañeda, 2015; van Ree, 1998).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Using the pharmacy retail model to examine perceptions and biases of a UK population sample towards regulation of specific psychoactive drugs

James

Robertshaw

Chapman

et al. 2019

Drug Science, Policy and Law

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Background: Contemporary research indicates that the legal classifications of cannabis (Schedule 2, Class B), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (Schedule 1, Class A) and psilocybin (Schedule 1, Class A) in the United Kingdom are not entirely based on considerations of harm and therapeutic utility. The legal classifications of the substances discussed are typically determined by legislators such as Parliament and, therefore, may be a reflection of the views or perceived views of the general public. Objective: The aim of the study was to provide an indication of the underlying psychology regarding the legislated sale of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, MDMA and psilocybin in pharmacies according to a UK general population sample. Methods: A sample of 105 UK nationals was selected for the survey. Participants were asked questions on perceived relative harm of the five substances. After viewing contemporary information on reported relative harm and therapeutic applications, the participants were asked questions related to using the pharmacy retail model for the sale of the substances discussed. Participants who opposed the substances being sold primarily in pharmacies were asked to explain their rationale according to a predetermined list of options for each of the five drugs. Participants were also asked whether they consider it a human right to be legally permitted to consume the substances. Results: The participants' perceptions of relative harm (tobacco > MDMA > psilocybin > alcohol > cannabis) were not in agreement with the relative harm reported in the literature (alcohol > tobacco > cannabis > MDMA > psilocybin). Principal objections to the currently illicit substances being legally available in pharmacies include it sending the wrong message; it feels wrong; it is too dangerous; disliking the smell of cannabis; disapproval of the people; and not liking the idea of people using psychoactive drugs for entertainment or to have mystical/religious experiences. Overall, the participants determined that being legally permitted to consume the substances discussed is an issue of relevance to human rights. A majority of the male participants concluded that being legally permitted to consume alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and Psilocybe mushrooms is a human right in contrast to the majority of female participants who solely considered alcohol consumption to be a human right. Conclusions: The data suggest that the legal classifications may not simply be based on considerations of harm. Misperceptions of the dangers, biases and non-health-related aversions likely contribute to the continuation of policies that do not reflect the state of scientific research.

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“…Anot Cabral (2017), nuo 2001 metų liepos 1 dienos, Portugalijoje buvo dekriminalizuotas narkotinių ir psichotropinių medžiagų vartojimas, laikymas ir įsigijimas asmeniniais tikslais. Šis įstatymas priimtas dėl to, jog…”

Section: Globalinės Narkotinių Medžiagų Kriminalizacija Grįstos Politikos įSigalėjimas Ir Apraiškos Lietuvojeunclassified

“…Dėl savo represinio pobūdžio, kriminalizacijos politika apsunkina pagalbos teikimo procesą priklausomybės ligomis sergantiems asmenims. Kaip atskleidė Portugalijos praktika, dėl kriminalizacijos kuriamų baimių ir stigmų šiomis ligomis sergantys asmenys dažnai bijo kreiptis pagalbos į specialistus, nuogąstaudami, jog šie juos pasmerks, įduos teisėsaugai ar kitaip jiems pakenks (Cabral 2017). Šis apibūdinimas atitinka situaciją, kurioje yra atsidūręs tyrimo dalyvis Agnius.…”

Section: Kanapių Kriminalizavimo Poveikis Jas Vartojantiems Asmenimsunclassified

“…Anot autoriaus, įstatymas priimtas iš dalies ir dėl to, jog valstybė neturėjo išteklių, reikalingų brangiai kainuojančiai kovos su narkotikais politikai įgyvendinti, kaip tai padarė Jungtinės Amerikos Valstijos ar kitos šalys. PasakCabral (2017), Portugalijos narkotinių ir psichotropinių medžiagų dekriminalizacijos politika viso pasaulio akyse tapo netikėta sėkmės istorija: nuo jos pradžios narkotinių ir psichotropinių medžiagų vartojimo rodikliai šalyje sumažėjo, o baimė, jog Portugalija gali tapti narkoturizmo šalimi -nepasitvirtino. Anot autoriaus,…”

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Deviantinės etiketės reikšmė rekreacines kanapes vartojantiems pilnamečiams asmenims: poveikis ir įveikos mechanizmai

Stirbinskas¹

2020

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The 15th anniversary of the Portuguese drug policy: Its history, its success and its future

Cited by 21 publications

References 14 publications

Understanding Addiction Using Animal Models

Understanding Addiction Using Animal Models

Using the pharmacy retail model to examine perceptions and biases of a UK population sample towards regulation of specific psychoactive drugs

Deviantinės etiketės reikšmė rekreacines kanapes vartojantiems pilnamečiams asmenims: poveikis ir įveikos mechanizmai

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