Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogues in Food: Recent Updates on Sample Preparation and Analytical Methods Since 2012

Abstract

Tetrodotoxin (TTX), found in various organisms including pufferfish, is an extremely potent marine toxin responsible for numerous food poisoning accidents. Due to its serious toxicity and public health threat, detecting TTX and its analogues in diverse food matrices with a simple, fast, efficient method has become a worldwide concern. This review summarizes the advances in sample preparation and analytical methods for the determination of TTX and its analogues, focusing on the latest development over the past five years. Current state-of-the-art technologies, such as solid-phase microextraction, online technology, novel injection technology, two-dimensional liquid chromatography, high-resolution mass spectrometry, newly developed lateral flow immunochromatographic strips, immunosensors, dual-mode aptasensors, and nanomaterials-based approaches, are thoroughly discussed. The advantages and limitations of different techniques, critical comments, and future perspectives are also proposed. This review is expected to provide rewarding insights to the future development and broad application of pretreatment and detection methods for TTX and its analogues.

Extraction-Less Amperometric Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Seawater

“…At present, almost all testing for marine toxins, including TTX, takes place only after a suspected intoxication occurs. 11 It has been reported as far back as 1995 that the microorganisms that produce TTX use it as a pheromone to signal that conditions are suitable for reproduction. 12 It logically follows that the detection of TTX at these concentrations (tens of pg ml −1 ) in natural waters can provide the advance notice needed to predict TTX bioaccumulation in more complex organisms.…”

Multistage Detection of Tetrodotoxin Traces in Diodon hystrix Collected in El Salvador

“…The most useful approach to analyzing TTX is the LC/MS technique. A review of the advantages and limitations of this technique to detect and analyze the presence of TTX and its analogs has been recently reported [ 20 ].…”

Analytical Method Optimization of Tetrodotoxin and Its Contamination in Gastropods

“…In 2017, based on the intake of shellfish meat with 400 g, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) proposed a provisional concentration below 44 μg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat, which was considered not to result in adverse effects in humans [ 9 ]. The literature focuses more on the study of trace TTX in bivalve mollusks and the toxic levels in nassarius [ 1 , 6 , 10 ]. However, there is limited research on the analytical method and contamination of trace levels of TTX in gastropod seafood.…”

“…Immunoassay can quickly screen TTX in seafood, but its shortcomings in qualitative confirmation cannot be ignored as well [ 11 ]. The instrumental method based on the chromatographic separation principle is the most commonly used method for qualitative and quantitative determination of TTX in seafood [ 10 ]. TTX is a water-soluble and polar substance containing multiple hydroxyl groups ( Figure 1 ).…”

“…Subsequently, this technique was applied for the determination of TTX in nassarius samples during poisoning events [ 2 , 14 ]. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is the preferred method for the determination of TTX in seafood due to its high sensitivity and selectivity [ 10 , 15 ]. However, compared to fish samples dominated by muscle tissue, the gastropod contains a large amount of visceral tissue.…”