Testing enhances subsequent learning in older adults.

Abstract

Interference susceptibility has been suggested to be a major factor for episodic memory impairment in healthy older adults. Previous work has shown that retrieval practice can reduce proactive interference and thus enhance learning and memory in younger adults, a finding referred to as the forward effect of testing in the literature. This study examined the late developmental trajectory of the forward effect in middle-aged and older adults (40 to 79 years of age). Participants studied three lists of items in anticipation of a final cumulative recall test. In the testing condition, participants were tested immediately on lists 1 and 2 after initial study, whereas in the restudy condition, they restudied lists 1 and 2. In both conditions, participants were tested immediately on list 3. The results of the immediate list 3 recall test showed a reliable forward effect of testing, with interim testing of lists 1 and 2 enhancing list 3 recall and reducing the number of prior-list intrusions. Importantly, this effect of testing was found independent of participants' age. These results suggest that retrieval practice can reduce proactive interference in middle-aged and older adults. Together with recent findings on the presence of the backward effect of testing in older adultsthat is, improved recall of studied material after retrieval versus restudy-, these findings indicate that retrieval practice can be a very powerful tool to delimit memory impairment in older age.

The Forward Testing Effect is Reliable and Independent of Learners’ Working Memory Capacity

“…The present study adds to earlier research that also took an individual-differences approach in studying the benefits of retrieval-based learning. Developmental and clinical research has established both direct and indirect testing effects in children (Aslan & Bäuml, 2016; Karpicke et al, 2016; Lipowski et al, 2014), healthy older adults (Coane, 2013; Pastötter & Bäuml, 2019; Meyer & Logan, 2013), and patients with memory impairment (Balota et al, 2006; Pastötter et al, 2013; Sumowski, Wood et al, 2010). In addition, several studies examined the influence of participants’ WMC on the backward testing effect (Agarwal et al, 2017; Aslan & Bäuml, 2011) and test-potentiated learning (e.g., Brewer & Unsworth, 2012; Wiklund-Hörnqvist et al, 2014).…”

“…For instance, children in (late) primary school benefit from the backward testing effect (Karpicke, Blunt, & Smith, 2016), the forward testing effect (Aslan & Bäuml, 2016), and test-potentiated learning (Lipowski, Pyc, Dunlosky, & Rawson, 2014), and even preschool children may benefit from some forms of retrieval practice (Kliegl, Abel, & Bäuml, 2018; see Fazio & Marsh, in press, for a review). In addition, several studies have established both backward (Meyer & Logan, 2013) and forward testing effects (Pastötter & Bäuml, 2019) and test-potentiated learning (Coane, 2013) in older adults, with the size of the effects comparable to younger adults. Furthermore, reliable testing effects were observed in memory-impaired patient groups, including patients with multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, and Alzheimer’s disease (Balota, Duchek, Sergent-Marshall, & Roediger, 2006; Pastötter, Weber, & Bäuml, 2013; Sumowski, Chiaravalloti, & DeLuca, 2010; Sumowski, Wood et al, 2010; but see Pastötter, Eberle, Aue, & Bäuml, 2017).…”

Do working memory capacity and test anxiety modulate the beneficial effects of testing on new learning?

“…Recently, researchers have turned to exploring the FTE in different populations, such as older adults (Pastötter & Bäuml, 2018), young children (Aslan & Bäuml, 2015), and patients with traumatic brain injury (Pastötter, Weber, & Bäuml, 2013). But little research has been conducted to explore whether the FTE generalizes across individuals with different levels of WMC and test anxiety.…”

Rapid Neural Reorganization during Retrieval Practice Predicts Subsequent Long-term Retention and False Memory

“…Such retrieval practice can boost long-term retention, with robust memory gains after intervals of days or months 1 , suggesting the involvement of memory consolidation 2 . The value of retrieval practice is well recognized and widely used in education 3 , and also in the clinic to aid age-associated memory impairment 4 . Yet, each retrieval can induce transient changes in a memory's strength and content immediately after retrieval 5 , thereby rendering the memory trace labile to be altered by current experience 6 , potentially inducing false memory 7 .…”