Test Anxiety: A Cross-Cultural Perspective

Abstract

The present paper examines test anxiety from a cross-cultural perspective with specific reference to the Indian and American cultures. The construct of test anxiety has been examined in many cultures all over the world. In this review, the importance of understanding and incorporating contextual factors in cross-cultural research is emphasized. Moreover, some of the methodological issues related to investigating culture-behavior relationship are discussed. Specifically, the derived-etic approach for conducting cross-cultural research is espoused. Then, research findings from western, cross-cultural, and Indian studies on test anxiety are reviewed. Consistent with the individualistic orientation of the western society, much of the research in the western world has adopted a de-contextualized approach. Inasmuch as many of the cross-cultural and Indian studies on test anxiety have their roots in western research, they have ignored the cultural context as well. To address this void, contextual variables relevant to test anxiety in the Indian setting are examined and hypotheses regarding the nature of test anxiety in Indian children are proposed. Finally, a research agenda is presented to examine these hypotheses using a derived-etic approach.

Introducing National Tests in Swedish Primary Education: Implications for Test Anxiety

“…Anxiety is a very circumscribed condition and thus an important variable to consider in education (Beidel & Turner, 1988). However, test anxiety is not a diagnosable disorder (Bodas, Ollendick & Sovani, 2008), but rather a syndrome or a symptom (Legrand, McGue & Iacono, 1999) that may be a major factor weakening academic performance at all levels (Birenbaum & Gutvirtz, 1993 (Nasser, Takahashi & Benson, 1997). Chung, O"Neil, Delacriz and Bewley (2005) believe that worry has a stronger negative influence on performance than emotionality.…”

“…Although the degree to which test anxiety affects performance and metacognitive precision may depend of the type of test (Miesner & Maki, 2007), test anxiety remains a growing problem in diverse geographical and cultural settings (Bodas et al, 2008). Pupils of all achievement levels suffer and no age group is immune (Legrand et al, 1999).…”

“…This difference could be explained by worldwide socialisation practices that encourage women to show their feelings publicly and men to hold back or hide them (Bodas et al, 2008), or by the view that valuing school work and scholastic performance are not regarded as "masculine" traits and hence are not valued by males (Martino, 1997;Skelton, 2001). …”

“…Test anxiety may emerge during the early years of school (Nicholls & Miller, 1986). Bodas et al (2008) propose that 25-40 % of schoolchildren experience test anxiety, while Yousefi et al (2009) estimate that it is experienced by 10-30% of elementary and secondary pupils. McDonald (2001) cites estimates of its occu-rrence in school age children ranging from 10 to 41 %.…”

“…Paris, Lawton, Turner and Roth (1991) argue that motivation and readiness for tests seem to decrease with age, while anxiety increases. Bodas et al (2008) studied differences in test anxiety among middle and high school students and found no corresponding increase in test anxiety levels as the children advanced to the higher grades. Wigfield and Eccles (1989) suggest that children"s anxiety over the experience of failure is dominated first by emotional-affective responses, and characterised later by cognitive concern or worry about performing poorly.…”