Terrestrial Activity in Pitheciins (Cacajao,Chiropotes, andPithecia)

Abstract

Neotropical monkeys of the genera Cacajao, Chiropotes, and Pithecia (Pitheciidae) are considered to be highly arboreal, spending most of their time feeding and traveling in the upper canopy. Until now, the use of terrestrial substrates has not been analyzed in detail in this group. Here, we review the frequency of terrestrial use among pitheciin taxa to determine the ecological and social conditions that might lead to such behavior. We collated published and unpublished data from 14 taxa in the three genera. Data were gleaned from 53 published studies (including five on multiple pitheciin genera) and personal communications of unpublished data distributed across 31 localities. Terrestrial activity was reported in 61% of Pithecia field studies (11 of 18), in 34% of Chiropotes studies (10 of 29), and 36% of Cacajao studies (4 of 11). Within Pithecia, terrestrial behavior was more frequently reported in smaller species (e.g. P. pithecia) that are vertical clingers and leapers and make extensive use of the understory than in in the larger bodied canopy dwellers of the western Amazon (e.g. P. irrorata). Terrestrial behavior in Pithecia also occurred more frequently and lasted longer than in Cacajao or Chiropotes. An apparent association was found between flooded habitats and terrestrial activity and there is evidence of the development of a "local pattern" of terrestrial use in some populations. Seasonal fruit availability also may stimulate terrestrial behavior. Individuals also descended to the ground when visiting mineral licks, escaping predators, and responding to accidents such as a dropped infant. Overall, the results of this review emphasize that terrestrial use is rare among the pitheciins in general and is usually associated with the exploitation of specific resources or habitat types.

Determinants of terrestrial feeding in an arboreal primate: The case of the southern bamboo lemur (Hapalemur meridionalis)

“…(Campbell et al, ), Brachyteles spp. (Dib, Oliva, & Strier, ; Mourthé et al, ; Tabacow, Mendes, & Strier, ), Cebus capucinus (Gilbert & Stouffer, ), and some pitheciin monkey genera (Barnett et al, ). These observations of terrestrial behavior are often associated with disturbed habitats whereby animals traverse open areas between forest fragments, potentially increasing their exposure to predators (Campbell et al, ; Takemoto, ).…”

“…Arboreal primates face the risk of descending to the ground primarily to gain access to water or to obtain certain amino acids and/or minerals (Campbell et al, ; Izawa, ; Link, Galvis, Fleming, & Di Fiore, ). This is quite different from a dietary niche expansion, whereby animals may be seasonally supplementing their daily nutritional intake during a lean season (Barnett et al, ; Grueter et al, ). Thus, the nutritional gain from ubiquitous (i.e., rather than clumped) terrestrial food items during periods of food scarcity in the arboreal stratum may have been a catalyst in the transition of an arboreal mammal to a terrestrial dietary niche, although other factors are likely to have played a role, for example, potential predation risk, thermoregulation, and/or energetic costs of locomotion.…”

“…It has been previously suggested that despite the risk of predation, terrestrial foraging in some arboreal species may represent a nutritional fallback strategy when more preferred food items are seasonally scarce in more degraded and/or naturally patchy habitats (Barnett et al, ; Grueter et al, ; Newton, ). The southern bamboo lemurs of Mandena provide an excellent model for exploring the ecological trade‐off of costs/benefits and ultimate influences on the transition to a terrestrial niche.…”

Natural canopy bridges effectively mitigate tropical forest fragmentation for arboreal mammals

“…10 by lower rates of terrestrial behaviour where predation pressure was higher. In the Neotropics, records of terrestrial behaviour in primates, one of the most well-studied groups of arboreal mammals, tend to be very rare 10, 11 , and they often involve cautious behaviours such as running 12 , displays associated with tension 13 , and use of the shortest path available to cross the clearing 14 .…”

Pitheciids in fragmented habitats: Land cover change and its implications for conservation

“…In multiple studies the habitat fragments have been very isolated from other habitat areas by large distances [Ferrari et al, ; García et al, ; Jerusalinsky et al, ] or by physical barriers such as barbed wire [Defler et al, ]. As there appear to be differences in the frequency that pitheciid species engage in terrestrial movement [Barnett et al, ], a landscape of small, isolated forest fragments may have serious negative implications for species' movement between habitat fragments.…”