Ternary Ionogel Electrolytes Enable Quasi‐Solid‐State Potassium Dual‐Ion Intercalation Batteries

Abstract

Sustainable battery materials and chemistries are required to complement the growing demand for renewable energy from solar farms, wind mills, and hydroelectric power stations which are characterized by either demand fluctuations or periodic supply interruptions. [1] To keep a balance between supply and demand at all times, the intermittent nature of renewables should be leveled using stationary batteries deploying abundant, inexpensive, and nontoxic materials. [2,3] Current stationary batteries rely heavily on expensive transition metals (e.g., nickelcadmium or nickel-metal hydride batteries, and vanadium redox flow batteries), toxic elements (e.g., nickelcadmium and lead-acid batteries), or require high temperature to operate (e.g., sodium-sulfur batteries operating at 300À350 C). [3,4] In the interest of avoiding toxic and expensive minerals, there is a pressing need for sustainable battery materials that can provide comparable performance and cycle life. In this regard, the dual-ion battery (DIB) concept has emerged as a promising chemistry for future energy storage applications. In contrast to the "rocking chair" model in lithium-ion batteries, the energy storage mechanism in an archetype of a DIB is underpinned by the simultaneous intercalation of cations and anions from the electrolyte into, respectively, negative and positive electrodes containing graphite. [5,6] In a lithium DIB, anion intercalation and extraction require an operating voltage window ranging from 3 to 5.2 V versus Li þ /Li with the extent of reversibility ultimately depending on the type of graphite, electrolyte-salt concentration, type of electrolyte solvent, type of anion in the electrolyte, working temperature, and amount of electrolyte in the cell. [7,8] Reported gravimetric capacities for half-cells generally vary between 80 and 140 mAh g À1 with discharge voltages averaging 4.5 V. [6,9] On the basis of these metrics, lithium metal DIBs can be optimized to deliver cell-level energy density and specific energy above 200 Wh L À1 and 100 Wh kg À1 , respectively, better than lead-acid batteries (50-80 Wh L À1 or 20-55 Wh kg À1 ) and comparable with Ni-metal hydride batteries (150-220 Wh L À1 or 50-70 Wh kg À1 ) or Na-S batteries (150-300 Wh L À1 or 80-150 Wh kg À1 ). [6,10] Using graphite as the anion-hosting electrode, a wide selection of materials can be utilized in the negative electrode, which allows for increasingly diverse electrodeelectrolyte combinations in the design of DIBs. In addition, the fact that the negative and positive electrodes host different ions during cell operation relaxes the requirements on the type of electrolytes used. Thus, a stationary battery based on a DIB technology presents significant strategic advantages such as the likelihood of replacing transition metal-containing cathodes with graphite or organic materials and a broad choice of electrolytes. [11][12][13] These benefits are, in turn, anticipated to facilitate the transition to beyond Li-ion technologies harnessing more abundant Na þ -, K þ -, Ca 2þ...

Advancements in cathode materials for potassium-ion batteries: current landscape, obstacles, and prospects

“…439 Despite the existence of polymer electrolytes exhibiting high K + conductivity, the literature on solid-state potassium-ion conductors remains relatively scarce. 443–476 As a result, the current focus of research revolves around enhancing the ionic conductivity of solid-state potassium-ion conductors. However, it is essential to note that other pivotal electrochemical properties often remain insufficiently characterised, including electrochemical stability, ion selectivity, mechanical properties, and assembly techniques.…”

Sustainable Dual‐Ion Batteries beyond Li

“…Asfaw et al explored the utilization of MoS 2 , a representative TMD with a substantial interlayer gap of approximately 6.15 Å, as the anode material in KDIBs coupled with a graphite cathode. [99,125] The electrolyte employed for this configuration was a highly concentrated carbonate solution (6 m KTFSI in Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)) augmented with triallyl phosphate (TAP) monomers as an additive. The incorporation of TAP resulted in the formation of a stable polymeric CEI on the graphite particles (Figure 6e), thereby elevating the cell's CE to an impressive range of 97-99%.…”

Processing of Composite Electrodes of Carbon Nanotube Fabrics and Inorganic Matrices via Rapid Joule Heating

“…When used as an anode for lithium-ion batteries, our composite material outperforms most high-capacity structural electrodes and provides high in-plane and out-of-plane electrical conductivity (10 3 and 1.2 S/m, respectively) . Beyond lithium-ion battery chemistry, 2H-phase MoS 2 is particularly appealing due to its layered structure and large interlayer spacing (∼6.15 Å), providing a suitable host for reversible intercalation of bulky ions such as sodium or potassium. , However, a major hurdle in the development of these battery chemistries is that the aqueous electrolytes lead to the corrosion of the metallic current collectors . This challenge can be overcome using nanocarbon current collectors.…”