Tenderness and Sympathy: Distinct Empathic Emotions Elicited by Different Forms of Need

Abstract

Current need and vulnerability are two different forms of need. Integrating (a) cognitive-appraisal theories of emotion with (b) a view of human parental nurturance as emotionally based and cognitively generalizable, this article proposes that these two forms of need elicit distinct empathic emotions: Vulnerability evokes feelings of tenderness, whereas current need evokes feelings of sympathy. Results of two experiments support this proposal. Vulnerable targets elicited tenderness even when there was no current need; nonvulnerable targets did not. Sympathy was low when there was no evidence of current need but high when there was evidence of current need. Other forms of need and other empathic emotions are proposed, as are motivational and behavioral consequences of the distinction between tenderness and sympathy.

The role of cognitive emotion regulation on the vicarious emotional response

“…Two of the most common emotional reactions are empathic concern and personal distress (see Batson, 2011). These two emotional reactions differ in their focus (i.e., other-oriented and self-oriented, respectively) and may lead to different motivations to help (i.e., altruism and egoism, respectively) (see Batson, 2011; Davis, 1994). Apart from these dissimilarities, empathic concern and personal distress may have different correlates on behavior as well.…”

“…These include the degree to which the observer identifies with the suffering person, the meaning assigned to the vicarious distress or the attribution of responsibility for the pain (Batson, 2011; Decety, 2011; Decety & Lamm, 2009). Eisenberg and Eggum (2009) suggest that some important predictors of personal distress are high affective arousal and weak emotional regulation.…”

“…Previous research aimed at differentiating between empathic concern and personal distress has focused on the different types of motivation underlying the helping behaviour or the attentional focus (Batson, 1991(Batson, , 2011 Davis, 1994). However, little is known about the different emotion regulation mechanisms or processes that lead an individual to feel either empathic concern or personal distress when perceiving the same emotional stimuli or target (Batson, 2011).…”

“…However, little is known about the different emotion regulation mechanisms or processes that lead an individual to feel either empathic concern or personal distress when perceiving the same emotional stimuli or target (Batson, 2011). As pointed out by various authors (Eisenberg & Eggum, 2009;Hoffman, 1982) the level of arousal and how this arousal is controlled seems to make a difference between the two aforementioned vicarious emotions.…”

Seeing overweight adults as babies: Physical cues and implications for stigmatization

“…Yet, these protective tendencies and the associated perception of babyishness normally are inconsistent with physical, behavioural, and situational features indicating that one is not dealing with babies or infants but mature individuals. While babyishness may cause a positive appraisal (cuteness; see Alley, 1983; Glocker et al ., 2009) and feeling (tenderness; see Dijker, 2014; Lishner, Batson, & Huss, 2011; Sherman & Haidt, 2011), it may be negatively evaluated in the light of traits that are required for adults such as responsibility for one's own health and motivation and capacity to contribute to society; resulting in perceptions of laziness and free riding. These negative evaluations may be especially likely in modern Western and individualistic societies where the negative health consequences of obesity are widely known and self‐control and personal responsibility are highly valued (Crandall et al ., 2001).…”