Temporal patterns of anthrax outbreaks among livestock in Lesotho, 2005-2016

Lepheana, Relebohile Juliet; Oguttu, James Wabwire; Qekwana, Daniel Nenene

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204758

Cited by 11 publications

(13 citation statements)

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“…Regional-scale modelling will also help advance modelling work that explicitly predicts seasonal dynamics of anthrax risk. Across countries and continents, anthrax dynamics are often seasonal, although this may range from predictable annual outbreaks to sporadic, high-mortality epizootics 12,23,[28][29][30][31] . The timing and intensity of seasonality are far from consistent across space, even on the same continent 1,5 , and the underlying drivers are a complex product of local climate and soil conditions, herbivore community structure and seasonal movement dynamics, and co-morbidity with other pathogens 23,[32][33][34] .…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife

et al. 2019

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Bacillus anthracis is a spore-forming, Gram-positive bacterium responsible for anthrax, an acute infection that most significantly affects grazing livestock and wild ungulates, but also poses a threat to human health. The geographic extent of B. anthracis is poorly understood, despite multi-decade research on anthrax epizootic and epidemic dynamics; many countries have limited or inadequate surveillance systems, even within known endemic regions. Here, we compile a global occurrence dataset of human, livestock and wildlife anthrax outbreaks. With these records, we use boosted regression trees to produce a map of the global distribution of B. anthracis as a proxy for anthrax risk. We estimate that 1.83 billion people (95% credible interval (CI): 0.59-4.16 billion) live within regions of anthrax risk, but most of that population faces little occupational exposure. More informatively, a global total of 63.8 million poor livestock keepers (95% CI: 17.5-168.6 million) and 1.1 billion livestock (95% CI: 0.4-2.3 billion) live within vulnerable regions. Human and livestock vulnerability are both concentrated in rural rainfed systems throughout arid and temperate land across Eurasia, Africa and North America. We conclude by mapping where anthrax risk could disrupt sensitive conservation efforts for wild ungulates that coincide with anthrax-prone landscapes.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife

et al. 2019

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“…Vaccination is generally considered a cost-effective prevention method for anthrax among livestock, and, as a result, among humans (4,16,17,30,31)…”

Section: Environmental and Laboratory Investigation Findingsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Anthrax Outbreaks among Domestic Ruminants Associated with Butchering Infected Livestock and Improper Carcass Disposal in Three Districts of Uganda, 2016-2018

Monje¹,

Kisaakye²,

Ario³

et al. 2020

Preprint

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Background During January 2017-December 2018, multiple human anthrax outbreaks in Arua, Kween, and Kiruhura districts, Uganda were caused by exposure to domestic ruminants that died of anthrax. We investigated to determine the scope of anthrax outbreaks in domestic ruminants, identify possible exposures, and recommend evidence-based control measures. Methods We defined a suspected case-animal as sudden death of a domestic ruminant with unclotted blood oozing from body orifices during January 2016–December 2018 in Arua, Kween and Kiruhura districts. A probable case-animal was a suspected case-animal with a positive rapid diagnostic test using the Active Anthrax Detect Rapid Diagnostic Test, and/or the microscopic identification of Gram-positive rods in biological samples. A case-kraal was defined as an enclosure of cattle/sheep or mixed species with ≥1 suspected case-animal. We reviewed district veterinary records and actively searched for case-livestock. We conducted separate case-control studies in the affected districts to compare exposures between case-kraals and control-kraals (i.e., kraals with no suspected case-livestock during the same time period as the case-kraal), frequency-matched by village, with ratios of 1:1 in Arua, 1:4 in Kiruhura, and 1:2 in Kween. We estimated overall associations in all three districts using pooled analysis. Results We identified 1,971 suspected case-livestock (attack rate [AR] =1.4/1000) in 229 (7.3/1,000) of 31,500 kraals. Cattle (AR=2.1/1,000), goats (AR=0.48/1,000), and sheep (AR=0.10/1,000) were all affected. Of the three districts, Arua was the most affected (AR=3.1/1,000), followed by Kween (AR=1.8/1,000) and Kiruhura (AR=0.065/1,000). The epidemic curve indicated continuous outbreaks in Arua and Kween districts. Human outbreaks were reported during or after the onset of livestock outbreaks in all three districts. Having livestock that died of suspected anthrax butchered <50m from the kraal (OR=8.0; 95%CI=5.2-12) and improper livestock carcass disposal on/near the pastureland (OR=1.7, 95%CI=1.1-2.4) before the outbreak were significant risk factors for being a case-kraal. Conclusions Ugandan districts with human anthrax outbreaks had concurrent livestock anthrax outbreaks associated with nearby butchering and improper carcass disposal of livestock with suspected anthrax. We recommended anthrax vaccination for domestic ruminants, proper carcass disposal, increased surveillance for sudden livestock deaths, increased capacity for laboratory confirmation, and sensitization to livestock-keepers about anthrax control.

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“…All warm-blooded animals are at risk of anthrax; however, herbivores [ 5 , 6 ], particularly cattle and sheep, are at a higher risk of contracting the disease [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Anthrax has also been reported in wildlife [ 10 , 11 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In Lesotho, anthrax disease has implications for both public health and the trade in animals and animal products [ 9 , 15 ]. The public health importance of anthrax is exacerbated by the fact that from 2003 to 2008 Lesotho did not have an operational formal abattoir, with most meat sourced from informal slaughterhouses [ 15 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Spatial Patterns of Anthrax Outbreaks and Cases among Livestock in Lesotho, 2005–2016

Lepheana

Oguttu

Qekwana

2020

IJERPH

Self Cite

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Background: Although anthrax occurs globally, the burden of the disease remains particularly high in Africa. Furthermore, the disease anthrax has significant public health and economic implications. However, sufficient attention has not been given to the geographic distribution of anthrax outbreaks and cases in Lesotho. Therefore, this study investigates the spatial patterns of anthrax outbreaks and cases among livestock in Lesotho from 2005 to 2016. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was adopted to realise the objectives of this study using retrospective data of anthrax outbreaks and cases recorded by the Department of Livestock Services (DLS) between 2005 and 2016. Anthrax outbreaks were geo-coded at village level and aggregated at district level. Proportions and 95% CI of anthrax outbreaks and cases by village and district were calculated. Cartographic maps displaying the distribution of anthrax outbreaks and cases at village and district level were constructed. Results: A total of 38 outbreaks were reported over the study period, and they were clustered in the Lowlands districts of Lesotho. Most outbreaks (52.6%, 20/38) in livestock were reported in the Maseru district. The Leribe district reported the lowest proportions of outbreaks (5.3%, 2/38) and cases (0.6%, 3/526). At the village level, 18% (7/38) of outbreaks were in Maseru Urban, followed by Ratau (16%, 6/38) and Mofoka (13%, 5/38). The Maseru district reported the highest (1.3%, 369/29,070) proportion of cases followed by Mafeteng (0.9%, 73/8530). The village with the most cases was Kolo (10.5%, 21/200), followed by Thaba-Chitja (7.7%, 33/430). Conclusion: Anthrax outbreaks and cases exclusively occur in the Lowlands districts of Lesotho, with villages such as Mahobong, Pitseng, Kolo, and Thaba-Chitja having a higher risk of anthrax disease. Findings of the present study have serious public health implications in light of the fact that between 2003 and 2008 Lesotho’s main abattoir was closed; hence, most of the meat in Lesotho was imported and/or sourced from the informal slaughter facilities. Much larger studies are needed to further investigate factors contributing to spatial disparities in anthrax outbreaks and cases observed in this study. Findings of the present study can be used to guide the formulation of a policy on prevention and control of anthrax in Lesotho.

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Temporal patterns of anthrax outbreaks among livestock in Lesotho, 2005-2016

Cited by 11 publications

References 19 publications

The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife

The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife

Anthrax Outbreaks among Domestic Ruminants Associated with Butchering Infected Livestock and Improper Carcass Disposal in Three Districts of Uganda, 2016-2018

Spatial Patterns of Anthrax Outbreaks and Cases among Livestock in Lesotho, 2005–2016

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