Teacher Evaluations of Executive Functioning in Schoolchildren Aged 9–12 and the Influence of Age, Sex, Level of Parental Education

Abstract

Executive functions (EFs) develop over the period of early childhood and adolescence up until young adulthood. Individual children differ substantially in the pace at which their EFs develop, and characteristics such as sex and the level of parental education (LPE) are thought to contribute to these differences. In the present study, we assessed age-related changes in EFs as perceived and evaluated by teachers and parents as well as the influence of sex and LPE on their evaluations. We used a newly developed observer-report questionnaire, the Amsterdam Executive Function Inventory (AEFI). The AEFI assesses three important components of the executive aspects of daily life behavior in 13 questions: Attention; Self-control and Self-monitoring; and Planning and Initiative taking. Teachers and parents evaluated these aspects of executive functioning in 186 schoolchildren in grades 3–6 (age: 9–12 years). Age effects within grades and differences in social economic status between the four participating schools were controlled. Results showed a significant increase in teacher-perceived EFs from third to fourth grades and from fifth to sixth grades. This development was influenced both by the sex of the child and by the LPE. As perceived by teachers, the component self-control and self-monitoring was higher for girls than for boys, and planning abilities were higher for children from families with a higher LPE. Additional analyses showed that there is a systematic and statistically significant difference between the evaluations of the teachers and that of parents. Parents reported higher scores for planning, whereas teachers reported higher scores for self-control and self-monitoring. Evaluations by parents and teachers were different for girls, but not for boys. These findings are important because they imply that the development of EFs as perceived by parents and teachers is influenced by child-related factors. Second, there are clear differences in evaluations between teachers and parents. The AEFI appears to be a tool that is easily used by parents and teachers and shows potential for monitoring the development of EFs as perceived by significant others during young adolescence.

Sex differences in self-regulation in early, middle and late adolescence: A large-scale cross-sectional study

“…Based upon our earlier research (see also [19] and [20]), we hypothesise that self-regulation develops at a slower pace in adolescent males than in females. A slower development of self-regulation skills in adolescent males would explain why they experience more problems with planning homework, learning for a test, or concentrating at school than females (e.g., [21], [22]). This could account for their worse performance at school as compared to females.…”

“…In the present study, we evaluate the self-reports of adolescents using the Amsterdam Executive Function Inventory. This measure has been used in several large-scale investigations in adolescents (e.g., [7], [18], [22], [41]). The AEFI is a measure which is similar to the widely used BRIEF (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function; [33], [37], [42]).…”

“…Examples of two major items of the AEFI are 'I am well-organised. For example, I am good at planning what I need to do during a day" and "It takes a lot of time for me to finish tasks" ( [22]). Other studies on sex differences in self-regulation primarily focused on emotional regulation ( [43]), or have used observer reports ( [44]) or behavioural tasks to measure self-regulation (see the meta-analysis of [45]).…”

“…Previous studies have also focused on other cognitive domains, such as impulse control ( [46]) in relation to sensation seeking or on emotional control (e.g., [47], [48]). Impulse control is an important aspect of executive functioning (see [2] and [49]), but it is a distinct skill from self-evaluation and self-regulation, which is the focus of our study and its predecessors ( [7], [18], [22], [41]).…”

Self-perceived Problems in Sleeping and in Self-control Are Related to First Year Study Success in Higher Education

“…Note that also the widely used Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning (Gioia et al, 2000) investigates the self-evaluation of various aspects of executive functioning and has been used in many studies and (thousands of) scientific papers. Self-report questionnaires are the method of choice for the assessment of subjective functioning Guy et al, 2004;Van der Elst et al, 2012;Teterink and Jolles, 2017).…”