“…For instance, in both regions, a strong reliance on trade and other indirect taxes dates back to the colonial times where trade was the main source of revenues (Frankema & Booth, 2019;Gwaindepi & Siebrits, 2020;Jerven, Suesse, & Albers, 2020). This delayed the shift to direct forms of taxation that are often considered desirable for state building (Atria, Groll, & Valdes, 2018;Brautigam, 2008;Moore et al, 2018). Direct taxes are not only stable, compared, for instance, with externally driven trade taxes, but have potential positive spillovers.…”