Tardigrada

Abstract

The Tardigrada comprise a phylum of over 1070 described species of minute aquatic animals. The metamerically segmented trunk possesses four pairs of squat, lobopodial limbs with terminating claws; the claw morphology is taxonomically important. Tardigrades are fluid feeders, piercing animal or plant cells with eversible stylets and ingesting fluid with a muscular, pumping pharynx. Two classes are recognised: the Heterotardigrada and Eutardigrada and heterotardigrades include the majority of marine genera. Most tardigrades, however, inhabit interstitial or temporary water bodies in soil, mosses and lichens, surviving periods of drying by cryptobiosis. During this process, animals may sustain a complete loss of ‘free’ liquid water and accompanying cessation of metabolism. In this dehydrated state, tardigrades display suspended senescence and remarkable resistance to environmental extremes. The phylogenetic status of tardigrades has long been contentious, but recent molecular analyses show that tardigrades are basal arthropods and should be reclassified accordingly. Key Concepts: Tardigrades, also known as water bears, are minute lobopodial arthropods occurring worldwide from Arctic to tropical latitudes. All tardigrades are aquatic; they are particularly associated with interstitial water of mosses, lichens and soils. Two classes are recognised: the Eutardigrada and the Heterotardigrada; the latter includes some marine species. All tardigrades possess piercing stylets that are used to puncture the cells of plants or, in a few species, animal prey. In many species of tardigrades, the eggs and adults are capable of surviving extreme dehydration and sub‐freezing temperatures by means of cryptobiosis. Cryptobiotic organisms frequently accumulate disaccharides or polyols that may stabilise membranes and proteins and/or promote vitrification. Cryptobiotic tardigrades may be ametabolic and show extreme longevity and high resistance to temperature, radiation and microgravity. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies unite the Tardigrada and Eutardigrada as a natural group within the collective arthropod taxa (Panarthropoda).

Methods to Improve nZVI Adsorbance on Silicates Surface for Nitrate Reduction

“…Furthermore, riparian strips are helpful in reducing the amount of pathogens, such as E.coli, entering waterways, and provides shade for aquatic life. 21 Chemically, phosphates are very stable as they are not readily reduced. They can be removed from wastewater by adsorption onto a variety of different materials, including alumina (Al2O3), 22 zeolite, [23][24][25] fly ash, 26,27 and specialist products including NCaSil (nano-structured calcium silicate), which was developed at Victoria University of Wellington.…”