Tap Water Contributions to Plasma Concentrations of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in a Nationwide Prospective Cohort of U.S. Women

Abstract

Background:Between 2013 and 2015, concentrations of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in public drinking water supplies serving at least six million individuals exceeded the level set forth in the health advisory established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Other than data reported for contaminated sites, no systematic or prospective data exist on the relative source contribution (RSC) of drinking water to human PFAS exposures.Objectives:This study estimates the RSC of tap water to overall PFAS exposure among members of the general U.S. population.Methods:We measured concentrations of 15 PFAS in home tap water samples collected in 1989–1990 from 225 participants in a nationwide prospective cohort of U.S. women: the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS). We used a one-compartment toxicokinetic model to estimate plasma concentrations corresponding to tap water intake of PFAS. We compared modeled results with measured plasma PFAS concentrations among a subset of 110 NHS participants.Results:Tap water perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) were statistically significant predictors of plasma concentrations among individuals who consumed ≥8 cups of tap water per day. Modeled median contributions of tap water to measured plasma concentrations were: PFOA 12% (95% probability interval 11%–14%), PFNA 13% (8.7%–21%), linear perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (nPFOS) 2.2% (2.0%–2.5%), branched perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (brPFOS) 3.0% (2.5%–3.2%), and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) 34% (29%–39%). In five locations, comparisons of PFASs in community tap water collected in the period 2013–2016 with samples from 1989–1990 indicated increases in quantifiable PFAS and extractable organic fluorine (a proxy for unquantified PFAS).Conclusions:Our results for 1989–1990 compare well with the default RSC of 20% used in risk assessments for legacy PFAS by many agencies. Future evaluation of drinking water exposures should incorporate emerging PFAS. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP4093

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances and their alternatives in paper food packaging

“… d Data (ng/L) averaged from multiple sources: (Evens et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2019). Calculation of ng/kg bw/day = (ng/L) x (3.2L/70 kg bw/day) (Sawka, 2005).…”

Determinants of serum concentrations of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in school children and the contribution of low-level PFAA-contaminated drinking water

“…35 Finally, in a recent study on adult women from the general population in the U.S. it was observed that tap water concentrations of PFOA (<100 ng L À1 ) and peruorononanoic acid (PFNA) (median: #2 ng L À1 of single PFAA) were associated with plasma concentrations among individuals that reported drinking >8 cups of drinking water per day. 36 No associations were found for PFOS and peruorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS).…”

Removal of Perfluorooctanoic Acid and Microcystins from Drinking Water by Electrocoagulation

“…Unfortunately, consumption of PFOA and microcystins is associated with very serious health problems such as elevated blood cholesterol, gastrointestinal infection, depressed immune system, kidney and liver disease, diabetes, and cancer. Also, growth deficiency among little children has been reported [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. e US EPA health regulatory limit for PFOA in drinking water is < 0.07 μg/L and the WHO guidelines limit for microcystins lifetime exposure is 1.0 μg/L [11].…”

“…Also, its thermal stability, surfactant behavior, and stainresistant properties are the reason for its wide use in the production of industrial items like fluoropolymer products, firefighting foams, stain-resistant coatings, and electroplating [15]. PFOA is not lipophilic, which means that it can bind to serum albumin making it hard to excrete from the human body [4][5][6][7]16]. On the other hand, microcystins belong to a family of stable monocyclic heptapeptide compounds, of which nearly 80 variants are now known.…”