Abstract:Background: Plants have evolved a panoply of specialized metabolites that increase their environmental fitness. Two examples are caffeine, a purine psychotropic alkaloid, and crocins, a group of glycosylated apocarotenoid pigments. Both classes of compounds are found in a handful of distantly related plant genera (Coffea, Camellia, Paullinia, and Ilex for caffeine; Crocus, Buddleja, and Gardenia for crocins) wherein they presumably evolved through convergent evolution. The closely related Coffea and Gardenia g… Show more
“…Finally, picrocrocin is converted into a safranal under the combined action of heating and β-glucosidase (β-GS) [27] . The reported transcriptome data and functional assays show that CsCCD2 [2] , CsALDH3I1 [43] , and CsUGT74AD1 [43] , as well as GjCCD4a [3] , [29] , GjALDH2C3 [29] , GjUGT74F8 [29] , [44] , and GjUGT94E13 [29] , [44] , have been identified to be involved in the complete crocin biosynthetic pathway in stigmas of C. sativus and fruits of G. jasminoides , respectively.…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 96%
“…To date, the crocin biosynthetic pathway in plants has been elucidated by transcriptome and genome sequencing of C. sativus and G. jasminoides ( Fig. 1 ) [3] , [24] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] . Fig.…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 99%
“…In recent years, with the increasing number of reports on genomic and transcriptomic analyses of C. sativus and G. jasminoides [3] , [24] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , the functional characterization and localization of three key enzymes (CCD, ALDH, and UGT) involved in crocin biosynthesis have been described [2] , [23] , [29] , [43] , [44] , [47] , [51] . From these studies, we have a better understanding of the crocin biosynthetic pathway and provide guidance for using metabolic engineering to enhance crocins production.…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 99%
“…It is reported that BdCCD4.1 and BdCCD4.3 are located in plastids, which is consistent with CCD2 localization [23] . However, it is worth noting that GjCCD4a identified from G. jasminoides not only has the same catalytic activity as CsCCD2, CaCCD2, BdCCD4.1, and BdCCD4.3 to cleave zeaxanthin, but also catalyzes the production of crocetin dialdehyde from lycopene and β-carotene [29] .…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Therefore, the first dedicated step in crocin biosynthesis can be catalyzed by the CCD2 enzymes from Crocus [2] , [47] and by the CCD4 enzymes from Buddleja [23] and Gardenia [29] , indicating that these CCD enzymes acquire the ability to cleave zeaxanthin at the 7, 8 and 7′, 8′ double bonds through convergent evolution in different species [29] .…”
Crocins are a group of highly valuable apocarotenoid-derived pigments mainly produced in
Crocus sativus
stigmas and
Gardenia jasminoides
fruits, which display great pharmacological activities for human health, such as anticancer, reducing the risk of atherosclerosis, and preventing Alzheimer’s disease. However, traditional sources of crocins are no longer sufficient to meet current demands. The recent clarification of the crocin biosynthetic pathway opens up the possibility of large-scale production of crocins by synthetic metabolic engineering methods. In this review, we mainly introduce the crocin biosynthetic pathway, subcellular route, related key enzymes, and its synthetic metabolic engineering, as well as its challenges and prospects, with a view to providing useful references for further studies on the synthetic metabolic engineering of crocins.
“…Finally, picrocrocin is converted into a safranal under the combined action of heating and β-glucosidase (β-GS) [27] . The reported transcriptome data and functional assays show that CsCCD2 [2] , CsALDH3I1 [43] , and CsUGT74AD1 [43] , as well as GjCCD4a [3] , [29] , GjALDH2C3 [29] , GjUGT74F8 [29] , [44] , and GjUGT94E13 [29] , [44] , have been identified to be involved in the complete crocin biosynthetic pathway in stigmas of C. sativus and fruits of G. jasminoides , respectively.…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 96%
“…To date, the crocin biosynthetic pathway in plants has been elucidated by transcriptome and genome sequencing of C. sativus and G. jasminoides ( Fig. 1 ) [3] , [24] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] . Fig.…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 99%
“…In recent years, with the increasing number of reports on genomic and transcriptomic analyses of C. sativus and G. jasminoides [3] , [24] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , the functional characterization and localization of three key enzymes (CCD, ALDH, and UGT) involved in crocin biosynthesis have been described [2] , [23] , [29] , [43] , [44] , [47] , [51] . From these studies, we have a better understanding of the crocin biosynthetic pathway and provide guidance for using metabolic engineering to enhance crocins production.…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 99%
“…It is reported that BdCCD4.1 and BdCCD4.3 are located in plastids, which is consistent with CCD2 localization [23] . However, it is worth noting that GjCCD4a identified from G. jasminoides not only has the same catalytic activity as CsCCD2, CaCCD2, BdCCD4.1, and BdCCD4.3 to cleave zeaxanthin, but also catalyzes the production of crocetin dialdehyde from lycopene and β-carotene [29] .…”
Section: Crocin Biosynthesismentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Therefore, the first dedicated step in crocin biosynthesis can be catalyzed by the CCD2 enzymes from Crocus [2] , [47] and by the CCD4 enzymes from Buddleja [23] and Gardenia [29] , indicating that these CCD enzymes acquire the ability to cleave zeaxanthin at the 7, 8 and 7′, 8′ double bonds through convergent evolution in different species [29] .…”
Crocins are a group of highly valuable apocarotenoid-derived pigments mainly produced in
Crocus sativus
stigmas and
Gardenia jasminoides
fruits, which display great pharmacological activities for human health, such as anticancer, reducing the risk of atherosclerosis, and preventing Alzheimer’s disease. However, traditional sources of crocins are no longer sufficient to meet current demands. The recent clarification of the crocin biosynthetic pathway opens up the possibility of large-scale production of crocins by synthetic metabolic engineering methods. In this review, we mainly introduce the crocin biosynthetic pathway, subcellular route, related key enzymes, and its synthetic metabolic engineering, as well as its challenges and prospects, with a view to providing useful references for further studies on the synthetic metabolic engineering of crocins.
Menispermaceae species, as early‐diverging eudicots, can synthesize valuable benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) like bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids (bisBIAs) and sinomenines with a wide range of structural diversity. However, the evolutionary mechanisms responsible for their chemo‐diversity are not well understood. Here, a chromosome‐level genome assembly of Menispermum dauricum is presented and demonstrated the occurrence of two whole genome duplication (WGD) events that are shared by Ranunculales and specific to Menispermum, providing a model for understanding chromosomal evolution in early‐diverging eudicots. The biosynthetic pathway for diverse BIAs in M. dauricum is reconstructed by analyzing the transcriptome and metabolome. Additionally, five catalytic enzymes – one norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) and four cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP450s) – from M. dauricum are responsible for the formation of the skeleton, hydroxylated modification, and C‐O/C‐C phenol coupling of BIAs. Notably, a novel leaf‐specific MdCYP80G10 enzyme that catalyzes C2′‐C4a phenol coupling of (S)‐reticuline into sinoacutine, the enantiomer of morphinan compounds, with predictable stereospecificity is discovered. Moreover, it is found that Menispermum‐specific CYP80 gene expansion, as well as tissue‐specific expression, has driven BIA diversity in Menispermaceae as compared to other Ranunculales species. This study sheds light on WGD occurrences in early‐diverging eudicots and the evolution of diverse BIA biosynthesis.
Salvia hispanica L. (chia) is a source of abundant ω‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω‐3‐PUFAs) that are highly beneficial to human health. The genomic basis for this accrued ω‐3‐PUFA content in this emerging crop was investigated through the assembly and comparative analysis of a chromosome‐level reference genome for S. hispanica. The highly contiguous 321.5‐Mbp genome assembly covering all six chromosomes enabled the identification of 32,922 protein‐coding genes. Two whole‐genome duplications (WGD) events were identified in the S. hispanica lineage. However, these WGD events could not be linked to the high α‐linolenic acid (ALA, ω‐3) accumulation in S. hispanica seeds based on phylogenomics. Instead, our analysis supports the hypothesis that evolutionary expansion through tandem duplications of specific lipid gene families, particularly the stearoyl‐acyl carrier protein desaturase (ShSAD) gene family, is the main driver of the abundance of ω‐3‐PUFAs in S. hispanica seeds. The insights gained from the genomic analysis of S. hispanica will help establish a molecular breeding target that can be leveraged through genome editing techniques to increase ω‐3 content in oil crops.
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