Tactile, acoustic and vestibular systems sum to elicit the startle reflex

Yeomans, John S.; Li, Liang; Scott, Bradley; Frankland, Paul W.

doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(01)00057-4

Cited by 276 publications

(223 citation statements)

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“…One of the most widely studied phenotypes in model organisms of relevance to anxiety is the startle response. The startle response is a cross-species phenomenon, which consists of a series of involuntary reflexes elicited by a sudden, intense auditory or tactile stimulus and is considered to be a defensive behavior evolved to protect the body from impact during attack (Graham, 1975;Yeomans et al, 2002). It is a highly conserved behavior across mammalian species and is well suited for translational studies of pathology across animals and humans.…”

Section: The Startle Responsementioning

confidence: 99%

Role of corticotropin releasing factor in anxiety disorders: A translational research perspective

Risbrough

Stein

2006

Hormones and Behavior

208

139

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Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders that include generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, phobic disorders (e.g., specific phobias, agoraphobia, social phobia) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Anxiety disorders are among the most common of all mental disorders and, when coupled with an awareness of the disability and reduced quality of life they convey, they must be recognized as a serious public health problem. Over 20 years of preclinical studies point to a role for the CRF system in anxiety and stress responses. Clinical studies have supported a model of CRF dysfunction in depression and more recently a potential contribution to specific anxiety disorders (i.e., panic disorder and PTSD). Much work remains in both the clinical and preclinical fields to inform models of CRF function and its contribution to anxiety. First, we will review the current findings of CRF and HPA axis abnormalities in anxiety disorders. Second, we will discuss startle reflex measures as a tool for translational research to determine the role of the CRF system in development and maintenance of clinical anxiety. KeywordsCRH; CRF; Posttraumatic stress disorder; Anxiety; Panic disorder; Startle Overview of CRF neuroendocrine effects and its effects on G-protein-coupled receptorsCorticotropin releasing factor (CRF; also termed "CRH" for corticotropin releasing hormone) was first described in Science by Vale et al. (1981). They reported the discovery of a hypothesized hypothalamic factor, CRF, a 41 amino acid peptide which selectively and potently activated pituitary corticotropin (or adrenal corticotropin releasing hormone, ACTH) secretion. They predicted that this peptide could be "a key signal in mediating and integrating an organism's endocrine, visceral and behavioral response to stress" (Vale et al., 1981(Vale et al., p. 1397). More than 20 years of subsequent animal research and clinical studies have confirmed this hypothesis, supporting a role for CRF, and its more recently discovered ligand family Urocortin 1, 2 and 3, in anxiety and stress responses Reyes et al., 2001;Spina et al., 1996). In this review, we will focus on the current state of knowledge of CRF system dysregulation in clinical anxiety and discuss future avenues of translational research on the role of CRF in startle phenotypes observed in some anxiety disorders. CRF mediation of the neuroendocrine response to stressIn response to stress, CRF is released from the median eminence of the hypothalamus, where it subsequently binds to receptors at the anterior pituitary and increases ACTH release into the * Corresponding author. 8950 Villa La Jolla Drive, Suite B-218, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA. E-mail address: mstein@ucsd.edu (M.B. Stein). bloodstream. ACTH consequently acts at the adrenal cortex to facilitate release of glucocorticoids such as cortisol. This system, known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), is an important component of the response to stress and has been shown to be dysregulated in both anxiety and de...

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Section: The Startle Responsementioning

confidence: 99%

Role of corticotropin releasing factor in anxiety disorders: A translational research perspective

Risbrough

Stein

2006

Hormones and Behavior

208

139

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“…A corollary of the cortical arousal system is the brainstem startle reflex, in which intense and/ or novel auditory, tactile, vestibular or visual stimulation evoke strong, bilateral co-contraction of flexor muscles (for review, see Koch, 1998;Yeomans and Frankland, 1995;Yeomans et al, 2002). The neural basis for the startle reflex resides in neurons in the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis, which are known to receive short latency tactile, acoustic and vestibular input (Yeomans et al, 2002) that, in turn, project directly to vast numbers of brainstem and spinal cord motor neurons (for review, see Yeomans and Frankland, 1995).…”

Section: Non-specific Cortical Activation?mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The neural basis for the startle reflex resides in neurons in the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis, which are known to receive short latency tactile, acoustic and vestibular input (Yeomans et al, 2002) that, in turn, project directly to vast numbers of brainstem and spinal cord motor neurons (for review, see Yeomans and Frankland, 1995). Neurons in this pontine reticular nucleus exhibit consistently high auditory response thresholds (>80dB SPL) as well as response habituation to repeated stimuli (Wu et al, 1988).…”

Section: Non-specific Cortical Activation?mentioning

confidence: 99%

Subthreshold auditory inputs to extrastriate visual neurons are responsive to parametric changes in stimulus quality: Sensory-specific versus non-specific coding

2008

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A new subthreshold form of multisensory processing has been recently identified that results from the convergence of suprathreshold excitatory inputs from one modality with subthreshold inputs from another. Because of the subthreshold nature of the second modality, descriptive measures of sensory features such as receptive field properties or location are not directly apparent as they are for traditional bimodal neurons. This raises the question of whether or not subthreshold signals actually convey sensory-specific receptive field information as seen in their bimodal counterparts, or if they represent non-specific effects such as arousal. The present experiment addressed this issue in visually-responsive neurons from the cat posterolateral lateral suprasylvian cortex (PLLS). Singleunit electrophysiological techniques were used to record neuronal responses to visual, auditory and combined visual-auditory stimuli while the intensity of stimulation in the subthreshold auditory modality was systematically altered. The results showed that subthreshold multisensory neurons were sensitive to changes in auditory stimulus intensity. These receptive field sensitivities are similar to those observed in bimodal neurons and thereby represent sensory-specific, not arousal-related responses. In addition, these results provide further support for the notion that multisensory processing occurs along a dynamic continuum of neuronal convergence patterns from bimodal to purely sensory-specific.

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“…Startle responses can be evoked by sudden tactile, vestibular, or auditory stimuli (45) but are most often studied using acoustic stimuli. Axial and appendicular muscles respond to acoustic startle (16), but the strongest and most consistent response occurs in the neck muscles, particularly the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle (8).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In some real-world conditions, such as rear-end automobile collisions, all these sensory systems are stimulated, and some form of cross-modal summation likely occurs (45). In the rat, summation of tactile (trigeminal) and acoustic startle responses has been observed at the functional (22) and cellular (27) levels.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Interaction between acoustic startle and habituated neck postural responses in seated subjects

Blouin

Siegmund²,

Inglis³

2007

Journal of Applied Physiology

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Blouin JS, Siegmund GP, Inglis JT. Interaction between acoustic startle and habituated neck postural responses in seated subjects. J Appl Physiol 102: 1574 -1586, 2007. First published December 14, 2006; doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00703.2006.-Postural and startle responses rapidly habituate with repeated exposures to the same stimulus, and the first exposure to a seated forward acceleration elicits a startle response in the neck muscles. Our goal was to examine how the acoustic startle response is integrated with the habituated neck postural response elicited by forward accelerations of seated subjects. In experiment 1, 14 subjects underwent 11 sequential forward accelerations followed by 5 additional sled accelerations combined with a startling tone (124-dB sound pressure level) initiated 18 ms after sled acceleration onset. During the acceleration-only trials, changes consistent with habituation occurred in the root-mean-square amplitude of the neck muscles and in the peak amplitude of five head and torso kinematic variables. The subsequent addition of the startling tone restored the amplitude of the neck muscles and four of the five kinematic variables but shortened onset of muscle activity by 9 -12 ms. These shortened onset times were further explored in experiment 2, wherein 16 subjects underwent 11 acceleration-only trials followed by 15 combined acceleration-tone trials with interstimulus delays of 0, 13, 18, 23, and 28 ms. Onset times shortened further for the 0-and 13-ms delays but did not lengthen for the 23-and 28-ms delays. These temporal and spatial changes in EMG can be explained by a summation of the excitatory drive converging at or before the neck muscle motoneurons. The present observations suggest that habituation to repeated sled accelerations involves extinguishing the startle response and tuning the postural response to the whole body disturbance. posture; neck muscle reflexes; habituation POSTURAL RESPONSES RAPIDLY adapt with repeated exposures to the same perturbation in standing (2,19,24), seated (3, 34), and supine (2) individuals. This process of adaptation, called habituation (18), typically consists of attenuated muscle activity and related kinematic changes. Startle responses also habituate rapidly to repeated startling stimuli (2,8,16,17,21,38,44), and the time course of this habituation is similar to that observed after repeated whole body accelerations. On the basis of this similarity, it was first proposed (1, 2, 29) and more recently shown (5) that the initially elevated, prehabituation muscle response during the first whole body acceleration is in part a startle response.Startle responses can be evoked by sudden tactile, vestibular, or auditory stimuli (45) but are most often studied using acoustic stimuli. Axial and appendicular muscles respond to acoustic startle (16), but the strongest and most consistent response occurs in the neck muscles, particularly the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle (8). Since consistent neck muscle responses are also evoked by forward accelerations ...

show abstract

Tactile, acoustic and vestibular systems sum to elicit the startle reflex

Cited by 276 publications

References 83 publications

Role of corticotropin releasing factor in anxiety disorders: A translational research perspective

Role of corticotropin releasing factor in anxiety disorders: A translational research perspective

Subthreshold auditory inputs to extrastriate visual neurons are responsive to parametric changes in stimulus quality: Sensory-specific versus non-specific coding

Interaction between acoustic startle and habituated neck postural responses in seated subjects

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