T-2 and HT-2 Toxins: Toxicity, Occurrence and Analysis: A Review

Abstract

One of the major classes of mycotoxins posing serious hazards to humans and animals and potentially causing severe economic impact to the cereal industry are the trichothecenes, produced by many fungal genera. As such, indicative limits for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 were introduced in the European Union in 2013 and discussions are ongoing as to the establishment of maximum levels. This review provides a concise assessment of the existing understanding concerning the toxicological effects of T-2 and HT-2 in humans and animals, their biosynthetic pathways, occurrence, impact of climate change on their production and an evaluation of the analytical methods applied to their detection. This study highlights that the ecology of F. sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae as well as the influence of interacting environmental factors on their growth and activation of biosynthetic genes are still not fully understood. Predictive models of Fusarium growth and subsequent mycotoxin production would be beneficial in predicting the risk of contamination and thus aid early mitigation. With the likelihood of regulatory maximum limits being introduced, increased surveillance using rapid, on-site tests in addition to confirmatory methods will be required. allowing the industry to be proactive rather than reactive.

Co-occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 Mycotoxins and α and β Anomers of Their Glucosides in Wheat and Oat Grains

“…These results do not differ significantly from the previously described prevalence of these toxins in cereals collected in Norway: 70% (mean 107.5 μg/kg) for oats and 2% (mean 30 μg/kg) for wheat, and Croatia: 70% (mean 87.9 μg/kg) and 19% (mean 23 μg/kg), respectively. , In different climates, the degree of toxin contamination in cereals can vary significantly. In oats, for example, Egyptian and Canadian crops showed similar numbers of positive samples for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 (70 and 81%, respectively), but the average content was much lower than in these European countries, at 35.4 and 39 μg/kg, respectively . In the case of wheat, a relatively high degree of T-2 and HT-2 contamination was found in crops growing in South Korea, where 55% of samples positive for these toxins were recorded and their average content was 72.3 μg/kg .…”

“…In oats, for example, Egyptian and Canadian crops showed similar numbers of positive samples for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 (70 and 81%, respectively), but the average content was much lower than in these European countries, at 35.4 and 39 μg/kg, respectively. 33 In the case of wheat, a relatively high degree of T-2 and HT-2 contamination was found in crops growing in South Korea, where 55% of samples positive for these toxins were recorded and their average content was 72.3 μg/kg. 34 An important factor influencing the degree of contamination of cereals with trichothecenes is their resistance to infection by fungi of the genus Fusarium.…”

Pathological consequences, metabolism and toxic effects of trichothecene T-2 toxin in poultry

“…There is considerable variability in the toxicity among different metabolites. HT-2 toxin, the primary metabolite of T-2 toxin, is considered highly toxic, while others are mainly less harmful molecules ( Meneely et al, 2023 ). T-2 toxin is rapidly metabolized into HT-2 toxin, indicating that HT-2 toxin contributes at least partially to its toxic effects ( Edwards et al, 2009 ).…”

Occurrence of mycotoxins in swine feed from South Korea

“…This may lead to increased susceptibility to disease, decreased resistance of species to disease in the herd, and the possible failure of vaccination programs. Pigs consuming mycotoxins may suffer from symptoms ranging from liver and kidney failures and immunosuppression caused by Afla [ 5 ], porcine nephropathy caused by ochratoxin [ 6 ], diarrhea, vomiting, and gastrointestinal inflammation caused by DON [ 7 ], hypoestrogenism, abortion, infertility, and ulceration caused by ZEN [ 8 ], pulmonary edema syndrome, porcine pulmonary edema syndrome, hydrothorax, and thorax swelling of pigs caused by FUM [ 9 ], and oral and gastric ulcers caused by T-2 [ 10 ].…”