Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos

Abstract

SynopsisChanos chanos belongs to a monotypic gonorynchiform family and is most closely related to the freshwater Ostariophysi. The earliest gonorynchiforms occurred in the Cretaceous of Brazil and west Africa. Chanos occurred in the freshwater Eocene deposits of Europe and North America, and probably invaded the circumtropical Tethys Sea during transgression episodes. At present, milkfish occurs near continental shelves and around oceanic islands throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific. Milkfish populations throughout the range show high genetic variation but low genetic divergence, similar to many other commercially important teleosts. The natural life history of milkfish is one of continual migration. Adults are relatively large (to 1.5 m or 15 kg), long-lived (to 15 years), pelagic and schooling. They spawn offshore near coral reefs or small islands. The eggs, embryos and larvae are pelagic and relatively larger than those of most marine species. Larvae 2 10 mm long and 2-3 weeks old move inshore via a combination of passive advection and active migration. Passing shore waters and surf zones, they settle in shallow-water depositional habitats such as mangrove swamps and coral lagoons, where they metamorphose and spend a few months as juveniles. Some juveniles may enter freshwater lakes where they grow into sub-adults but do not mature. Both small juveniles and large sub-adults go back to sea when they reach the size limit supportable by the habitat. Little else is known of the dynamics of wild populations of milkfish. A fishery on inshore larvae supports the centuries-old aquaculture of milkfish in southeast Asia. During the past ten years, milkfish have matured and spawned under various conditions of captivity, and hatcheries have produced larvae to supply the culture ponds. Much remains to be learned concerning the milkfish, particularly its ecology and physiology.

Ethnobiology, socio-economics and management of mangrove forests: A review

“…Mangroves function as nursery grounds for the early life stages of aquaculture species like penaeid shrimps, mangrove mudcrabs, sea-perch, snapper, grouper, milkfish, etc. (Matthes and Kapetsky, 1988;Bagarinao, 1994;Primavera, 1998b;Walton et al, 2006a;Cannicci et al, 2008;Nagelkerken et al, 2008). The collection of wild seed, which supports major fishery operations in many countries, has however been criticized for bycatch problems.…”

Tropical Transpacific Shore Fishes

“…The milkfish (pelagic larval duration 2-4 weeks) is widely distributed throughout the TEP and the rest of the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific. Although juvenile settlers develop in estuarine and other sheltered inshore habitats (Bagarinao 1994), adults occur in extremely isolated situations where conditions likely are lacking for settlers (e.g., oceanic islands such as Easter and Clipperton). Adult milkfish are large (to 1.8 m), fast swimming, pelagic fish, and adult dispersal could compensate for limited larval dispersal capabilities.…”

Utilization of Wastewater from Vannamei Shrimp Pond for Rearing Milkfish in Keburuhan Coast Purworejo Sub-District

“…One effort to exploit the population of phytoplankton in the pond is to introduce milkfish. Milkfish is a fish whose main feed consists of cyanobacteria, phytoplankton, algae, and detritus (Bagarinao, 1994), so it is suitable for cultivation in shrimp pond wastewater reservoir. Milkfish is an euryhaline fish species that is able to adapt to a wide range of salinity ranging from freshwater, brackish to saline or high salinity (Bagarinao 1994, Nelson et al, 2016 with water salinity range between 0-158 ppt, so as to live in freshwater habitat, brackish and salty.…”