System- and Policy-Level Challenges to Full Implementation of the Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) Model

Compton, Michael T.; Hankerson-Dyson, Dana; Krishan, Shaily; Stewart, Tarianna; Oliva, Janet R.; Watson, Amy C.

doi:10.1080/15332581003757347

Cited by 47 publications

(51 citation statements)

References 27 publications

(36 reference statements)

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“…It was developed in Memphis, TN following the tragic shooting of a man in crisis by a Memphis police officer. The stated goals of the model are to improve safety in police encounters with persons with mental illnesses and divert individuals away from the criminal justice system to mental health services when appropriate (Compton, Broussard, Munetz, Oliva & Watson, 2011). The CIT model includes collaboration between police, emergency communications, mental health and other service providers, advocates, persons with mental illnesses and their family members; changes in policies and protocols; and a designated drop off site where police can bring individuals in need of emergency psychiatric treatment.…”

Section: Police-led Diversion In Contextmentioning

confidence: 99%

Everyday police work during mental health encounters: A study of call resolutions in Chicago and their implications for diversion

Watson

Wood

2017

Behavioral Sci & The Law

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In recent decades, there has been sustained focus on police responses to persons experiencing mental health crises. The Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) model has been a seminal effort to improve safety, reduce arrests and enhance the use of emergency psychiatric assessment. With CIT well established, new discussions have emerged around how to further enhance the police-public health interface, including diversion from hospital emergency departments. In this context, this article takes stock of current police practices, utilizing descriptive data on 428 mental health-related calls addressed by Chicago Police over 3 years triangulated with insights from 21 in-depth officer interviews. During these calls, hospital transports were conducted more often than arrests. Moreover, informal interventions - without any legal action or hospitalization - were used most often, speaking to the "gray zone" nature of mental health-related encounters. Taken together, the data reveal the need for non-crisis diversion options that address chronic vulnerabilities.

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Section: Police-led Diversion In Contextmentioning

confidence: 99%

Everyday police work during mental health encounters: A study of call resolutions in Chicago and their implications for diversion

Watson

Wood

2017

Behavioral Sci & The Law

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“…Like the CIT curriculum in other cities, counties, and states, Georgia's 40-hour curriculum consists of didactic lectures presented by mental health professionals, site visits to area psychiatric facilities, and de-escalation role-playing (Oliva and Compton, 2008). Research on CIT has shown the model's effectiveness for increasing trained officers' knowledge and confidence in responding to individuals with mental illnesses, reducing stigma, and positively altering preferred use of force (Compton, Broussard, Munetz, Oliva, and Watson, 2011). …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The influence of neighborhood characteristics on police officers' encounters with persons suspected to have a serious mental illness

Krishan

Bakeman

Cristofaro

et al. 2014

International Journal of Law and Psychiatry

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Objective Police officers’ decisions and behaviors are impacted by the neighborhood context in which police encounters occur. For example, officers may use greater force and be more likely to make arrests in disadvantaged neighborhoods. We examined whether neighborhood characteristics influence police encounters with individuals suspected to have a serious mental illness, addictive disorder, or developmental disability. Method We obtained data on 916 encounters from 166 officers in six jurisdictions in Georgia, USA and abstracted geographical data pertaining to the location of these encounters from United States Decennial Census data. Encounters were nested within 163 census tracts. Officer-reported data covered general encounter characteristics, the officer’s perception of the subject’s condition, subject demographics, use of force, and disposition of the encounter (e.g., arrest v. referral or transport to treatment services). Geographical data included 17 variables representing population and housing characteristics of the census tracts, from which three indices pertaining to neighborhood income, stability, and immigration status were derived using factor-analytic techniques. We then examined associations of these indices with various encounter-related variables using multi-level analysis. Results Encounters taking place in higher-income and higher-stability census tracts were more likely to be dispatch-initiated and take place in a private home compared to those in lower-income and lower-stability neighborhoods. In higher-income neighborhoods, encounters were more likely to involve a subject suspected to have a mental illness (as opposed to an addictive disorder or developmental disability) and less likely to involve a subject suspected to have alcohol problems. The officer’s level of force used was not associated with neighborhood factors. Regarding disposition, although the likelihood of arrest was unrelated to neighborhood characteristics, encounters taking place in higher-immigrant neighborhoods were more likely to result in referral or transport to services than those in lower-immigrant neighborhoods. Conclusion Neighborhood characteristics are important to consider in research on police interactions with individuals with serious mental illnesses, addictive disorders, or developmental disabilities. Such research could inform departmental training policies and procedures based on the needs of the jurisdictions served.

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“…While these findings broaden the empirical base, they also point to specific difficulties in conducting research on CIT. Much has already been written in the literature about the difficulties inherent in conducting research on CIT given its far‐reaching organizational and systemic impacts within a community (Compton et al, 2008, ; Watson, ; Watson et al, , ). While all of these issues are experienced by all researchers and police departments that have implemented CIT, this research highlights additional difficulties experienced when attempting to conduct research with small police departments that have implemented CIT.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

CIT in small municipalities: Officer‐level outcomes

Strassle

2019

Behavioral Sci & The Law

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Research on the Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) as a method to deal with mental illness in policing encounters has primarily focused on officers from large urban areas. The current study examined officer‐level outcomes in a non‐urban geographical setting using a pre/post‐CIT training design. The sample included 46 police officers from seven departments that would be considered rural and 13 that would be classified as suburban. Officers completed scales to gauge change in mental illness attitudes at the beginning and end of their one‐week CIT training. CIT training resulted in reductions in stigmatic attitudes with seven large effect sizes (ranging from η2 = .24 to .59) across the two measures. The findings from this research are a direct response to the call for greater diversity in the size of police settings in the CIT literature and serve to expand the empirical base for CIT in relation to officer‐level outcomes.

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System- and Policy-Level Challenges to Full Implementation of the Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) Model

Cited by 47 publications

References 27 publications

Everyday police work during mental health encounters: A study of call resolutions in Chicago and their implications for diversion

Everyday police work during mental health encounters: A study of call resolutions in Chicago and their implications for diversion

The influence of neighborhood characteristics on police officers' encounters with persons suspected to have a serious mental illness

CIT in small municipalities: Officer‐level outcomes

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