“…Early on, probabilistic and statistical methods (Yamato et al, 1992 ; Natarajan et al, 2010 ; Shi et al, 2011 ) were often utilized for behavior identification. Many innovative methods have since surfaced with the advent of deep learning, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) (Xu et al, 2014 ; Muhammad et al, 2021 ; Shi et al, 2023a , b ; Tian et al, 2023 ; Zhaowei et al, 2023 ), which have been extended to teaching behavior analysis tasks (Li et al, 2021 ; Lin et al, 2021 ; Xie et al, 2021 ; Zhao et al, 2021 ; Gu and Li, 2022 ; Guo, 2022 ).…”