Swell Foundations: Fundamental Social Causes and Chronic Inflammation

Abstract

We assess prior research identifying potential causal links between social disadvantage and chronic inflammation, using Fundamental Social Causes (see Link and Phelan 1995) and gender theory.We use ordinary least-squares regression to investigate how social structure and relationship factors predict C-reactive protein serolevels among participants in the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (Waite et al. 2007).Gender predicts chronic inflammation status more strongly and reliably than any other social factor; female participants show significantly higher CRP levels. Other reliable predictors include race, education, and marriage. Black race predicts significantly higher CRP; college education and marriage predict significantly lower CRP. Income predicts CRP inconsistently. Social support and communication variables do not significantly predict CRP in our models.Gender inequalities and pressures may place women at heightened risk for chronic inflammation. Political advocacy and policy action approaches may thus prove more effective than medical interventions for inflammation prevention.

Health Disparities in Nonreligious and Religious Older Adults in the United States: A Descriptive Epidemiology of 16 Common Chronic Conditions

“…Table 4a presents chronic condition frequency estimates among nonreligious identified older adults of different binary sex categories (i.e., female and male). Since many studies have noted sex differences -in cissex (see Nowakowski et al 2015 for reviews of this literature), intersex (see Davis 2015 for review) and transitioning between sexes (see Miller & Grollman 2015 for reviews of this literature) populations -we sought to see how nonreligion intersects with sex to gauge whether or not nonreligious females and males would show similar variation. As demonstrated in Table 4a, nonreligious NSHAP respondents appear to experience variations in health related outcomes by sex that are very similar to those observed in their religious counterparts (see, e.g., Calasanti & Slevin 2001 for reference).…”

“…While gender is often significantly related to chronic and other health experience (see Nowakowski & Sumerau 2015), the NSHAP -like most other "representative" surveys -currently has no measure of gender, but rather only collects cissex (i.e., female/male) responses from subjects (see also Westbrook & Saperstein 2015). The NSHAP dataset includes 3,005 individual cases in total.…”

“…Rather than assuming a relationship a priori, we examine a series of chronic health conditions among both religious and nonreligious respondents from a large survey dataset to gain a picture of variation (or lack there of) in such conditions between these populations. Following intersectional recognitions that health outcomes often vary along lines of social privilege and oppression (see Nowakowski & Sumerau 2015;Grollman 2012), we then compute the prevalence of such conditions among nonreligious respondents occupying different race, class, and sex locations in contemporary American society. In so doing, we seek to (1) provide health outcome prevalence estimates for religious and nonreligious people to aid in evaluating and contextualizing prior research and (2) offer a framework for comparative analyses and further exploration using a wide variety of data sources.…”

A Descriptive Epidemiology of Sexual Behavior and Interest in Older Adults with Diabetes

“…People who identify as female appear to be lacking sexual engagement despite continuing sexual desire, which may be the result of gendered double standards concerning bodies and sexual desirability noted in other studies of gender and chronic health conditions [10]. Given that living with diabetes often goes hand in hand with heavier body development and that heavier women -cisgender and transgender -face significant stigma in contemporary American society, there may be much to learn by exploring the ways sexual partners of women managing diabetes -as well as the women themselves -sexually evaluate the bodies and self-presentations of females with diabetes [1,6,10].…”

“…Could it be the way people's partners view them because of their diabetes (i.e., see them as less able or desirable even when the condition does not actually change their desire)? Similarly, could it be that, even when health issues are at play, people utilize existing cultural scripts about gender and sexualities (i.e., "I have a headache" or "I'm tired" or "I'm not in the mood") to explain the absence of sexual engagement without explicitly referencing health in general or specific conditions [10,13]? Understanding this puzzle may create intervention strategies capable of enhancing the sexual options and experiences of many people managing diabetes -comorbid or otherwise -in later life.…”