Swearing in informal spoken English: 1990s–2010s

Abstract

This paper investigates changes in swearing usage in informal speech using large-scale corpus data, comparing the occurrence and social distribution of swear words in two corpora of informal spoken British English: the demographically-sampled part of the Spoken British National Corpus 1994 (BNC1994) and the Spoken British National Corpus 2014 (BNC2014); the compilation of the latter has facilitated large-scale, diachronic analyses of authentic spoken data on a scale which has, until now, not been possible. A form and frequency analysis of a set of 16 ‘pure’ swear word lemma forms is presented. The findings reveal that swearing occurrence is significantly lower in the Spoken BNC2014 but still within a comparable range to previous studies. Furthermore, FUCK is found to overtake BLOODY as the most popular swear word lemma. Finally, the social distribution of swearing across gender and age groups generally supports the findings of previous research: males still swear more than females, and swearing still peaks in the twenties and declines thereafter. However, the distribution of swearing according to socio-economic status is found to be more complex than expected in the 2010s and requires further investigation. This paper also reflects on some of the methodological challenges associated with making comparisons between the two corpora.

Gendered attitudes towards swearing: a trans-inclusive mixed methods study of social identity, swearing norms, and behaviour

“…Perhaps this observed role of threat could explain the lack of gender differences in swearing. The current study has replicated some recent research suggesting that women's swearing habits are changing (Aijmer, 2018) but has contrasted much of the research which suggested that men swear more than women (Love, 2021) and are less offended by swearing (Bendixen & Gabriel, 2013). Despite the finding that women and men had similar swearing frequencies, qualitative results still revealed a discussion of swearing less or using weaker words in an attempt to perform femininity.…”

“…This could explain the long-debated gender differences in swearing. Perhaps the most studied example of social identity affecting swearing is gender, with multiple studies finding that men swear more than women (Love, 2021;Schweinberger, 2018;Selnow, 1985). Furthermore, there are differences between men and women's swearing beyond frequency.…”

“…Furthermore, either one of these phrases may be perceived differently when said by a man, woman, or non-binary person. Swearing is extremely dependent upon context so it is important to take this into account when studying it (Love, 2021). Thirdly, the participants' thought processes and opinions are often left out.…”

Gender and the Use of English Language Among Form 3 Secondary School Students in Malaysia

“…When it comes to direct and indirect language, research has shown that men are more direct in their speech as compared to women (Ebadi & Seidi, 2015;Kakolaki & Shahrokhi, 2016;Karjo & Wijaya, 2020;Mulac et al, 2001) The final aspect to be discussed is the avoidance of swear words that is said to be a feature of women's speech in Lakoff's theory. Many studies have shown that men use swear words more than women do (Karjo & Wijaya, 2020;Love, 2021;Monk-Turner & Sylvertooth, 2008;Newman et al, 2008;Shu'e & Yiting, 2019). Furthermore, a study conducted by Knirnschild (2019) involving 400 respondents to a survey and 10 respondents to an interview have found that the usage of swear words by women is regarded as more offensive as compared to when a man uses the same words.…”

“…However, it can be said that men tend to use swear words more frequently as compared to women because even though the male students in this study seem to avoid swear words while speaking with their teacher, they use profanities frequently with their friends. As mentioned by Love (2021), swearing is highly related to contextual factors such as gender, and as such, the gender of the interlocutor will affect the use of profanity in a particular conversation.…”