“…These escaping ions have been observed by experiments from radars on the ground (Wahlund et al, 1992) and on numerous satellites including DE1, Polar, Geotail and Cluster (Yan and André and Yau, 1997;Moore et al, 1999;Maggiolo et al, 2006Maggiolo et al, , 2011Nilsson et al, 2006;Seki et al, 2001). The polar cap ions include the polar wind (Engwall et al, 2009;Li et al, 2012) and cusp origin O + Liao et al, 2010Liao et al, , 2012. Cold polar cap ions sometimes consist of mainly H + ions and can dominate the lobe outflow fluxes (Engwall et al, 2009;Nilsson et al, 2010).…”