Surveillance of Parapoxvirus Among Ruminants in Virginia and Connecticut

Abstract

In 2008, two deer hunters in Virginia and Connecticut were infected with a unique strain of pseudocowpox virus, a parapoxvirus. To estimate the prevalence of this virus, and in an attempt to define the reservoir, Parapoxvirus surveillance was undertaken between November 2009 and January 2010. 125 samples from four ruminant species (cows, goat, sheep and white-tailed deer) were collected in Virginia, and nine samples from white-tailed deer were collected in Connecticut. We found no evidence that the parapoxvirus species that infected the deer hunters is circulating among domesticated ruminants or white-tailed deer. However, parapoxvirus DNA of a different parapoxvirus species, bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), was detected in 31 samples obtained from asymptomatic cattle in Virginia. Parapoxvirus DNA-positive cattle originated from the same counties indicating probable transmission among animals. Molecular analysis identified BPSV as the parapoxvirus affecting animals. Asymptomatic parapoxvirus infections in livestock, particularly young animals, may be common, and further investigation will inform our knowledge of virus transmission.

A Broad-Spectrum Chemokine-Binding Protein of Bovine Papular Stomatitis Virus Inhibits Neutrophil and Monocyte Infiltration in Inflammatory and Wound Models of Mouse Skin

“…The CBP in conjunction with other viral virulence factors, will most likely dampen the inflammatory response, shield virus-infected cells, and delay the development of the adaptive immune responses. Furthermore, this immune evasion strategy may explain persistent and subclinical BPSV infections [6,7,22,23] that have been reported previously.…”

“…These anti-inflammatory mechanisms include the secretion of a viral homolog of interleukin-10 that reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [9–16], and also secretion of a chemokine-binding protein (CBP) that impairs the chemokine network [14,17–21]. In the case of BPSV, this combination of secreted viral immunomodulators in conjunction with other virulence factors may be associated with frequent subclinical infections, reinfections, and virus persistence in its natural host [6,7,22,23]. …”

Specific qPCR assays for the detection of orf virus, pseudocowpox virus and bovine papular stomatitis virus

“…The clinical parapoxvirus samples used in this study were swabs from patients and animals Roess et al, 2013), the ddPCR methods measured the absolute viral load and the relative viral DNA level of total nucleic acids for three of the clinical samples. The relative viral DNA levels among three clinical swabs vary considerably, from 0.8% to 12.9% of total DNA within samples and may reflect the differences of sampling methods or the stage of infections.…”

“…PCR positive parapoxvirus samples were identified from both symptomatic and asymptomatic ruminants: 100% (7/7) of sheep and goats with symptomatic disease, as well as 21% (3/14) of asymptomatic sheep and goats were positive for orf virus by real-time PCR from community farms in a recent investigation (Lederman et al, 2013). Oral swab surveillance samples obtained from asymptomatic cattle in Virginia, United States, revealed 31 out of 45 swab samples to be positive for BPSV DNA (Roess et al, 2013). ORFV-like virus and PCPV-like viruses were also discovered in other animal populations, including North America white-tailed deer (Roess et (Tikkanen et al, 2004) and other deer populations .…”

First Detection and Molecular Characterisation of Pseudocowpox Virus in a Cattle Herd in Zambia

“…Parapoxviruses cause papules and erosions on the muzzle, oral mucosa, and udder [6] and may cause high morbidity and loss of productivity [7]. Parapoxvirus infections may, however, also be asymptomatic [8]. Parapoxviruses may also infect humans working in close contact with infected animals [7,9].…”