“…8 Nonetheless, it has been shown that surface photovoltage spectroscopy (SPS) could still be used successfully to this end when augmented with numerical simulations. 9,10,11 In most of the practical cases, however, developers of heterostructure devices rely on simulations alone, with their only feedback coming from electrical characterization of fully fabricated devices. 12,13,14 Here, we present a fully empirical method that does not require simulations.…”