Surface Analysis

Abstract

Surface analysis has played an important role in the development of many advanced materials, including composites. This article describes the principles and instrumentation of the three most widely used surface analysis techniques: X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), and time‐of‐flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF‐SIMS). Applications of these techniques in composites have been highlighted using some typical examples published recently. The strengths and weaknesses of each technique as well as the precautions of using these techniques in composites have also been critically reviewed.

Surface Characterization of Polymer Blends by XPS and ToF-SIMS

“…In particular, the matrix effects, i.e., that secondary ion yields are strongly dependent on the matrix, are the main obstacle to quantitative analysis. However, the experimental results acquired during the past years have shown that semi-quantitative analysis of polymer blends or copolymers is possible [15,28,29]. In those cases, if the secondary fragments are correctly selected, matrix effects are negligible and the intensity of a fragment of a copolymer or polymer blend is a linear addition of the intensities of the same fragment from different components: $I_i=true\sum k_{ji}{x}_j$ where $I_i$ is the intensity of fragment i of a copolymer or polymer blend, $k_{ji}$ is the sensitivity factor of fragment i of component j , and $x_j$ is the molar fraction of component j .…”

“…This relation has been used to perform quantitative analyses for some copolymers and polymer blend systems [15,28,29]. …”

“…To determine the physical and chemical properties of polymer blends, surface analysis techniques such as XPS [ 1 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ], time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) [ 1 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ], ToF-SIMS depth profiling [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ], atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), attenuated internal reflection infrared spectroscopy (ATIR), and dynamic contact angle measurements are essential.…”

“…This review provides a brief introduction to the principles of XPS and ToF-SIMS and their application to the study of the surfaces and interfaces of polymer blends which represent some of our work in the last 20 years [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ].…”

Characterization of HOPG, Sputtered HPOG and Graphene by ToF-SIMS and XPS

“…The cleanliness of graphene surfaces is important for successful uses of graphene in these applications. Surfaces of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), which can be regarded as the surfaces of defect-free graphene and surfaces of graphene were characterized by two very powerful surface analysis techniques -X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) [1][2][3][4]. XPS results indicated that the impurities on the surfaces of graphene and HOPG can be removed by annealing samples of graphene and HOPG in vacuum at 400 o C [5].…”