Supporting Zoo Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Welfare and Herd Dynamics with a More Complex and Expanded Habitat

Abstract

Ensuring good health and welfare is an increasingly important consideration for conservation of endangered species, whether free-ranging or managed to varying degrees under human care. The welfare-based design of a new habitat for Asian elephants at the Oregon Zoo focused on meeting the elephants’ physical, physiological, psychological, and social needs 24 h a day and across life stages. The habitat was designed to encourage activity, promote species-typical behaviors, support changing social dynamics, offer increased opportunities for choice, and provide biologically meaningful challenges. In this 4-year study, we monitored elephant health and welfare indicators throughout the transition and acclimation from the previous habitat to the new habitat. Several welfare indicators obtained through longitudinal hormone analyses, behavior assessments, and GPS measurement of walking distance and space use provided evidence that these goals were achieved. The elephants were more active and walked farther on a daily basis in the new habitat, with an average walking distance of over 15 km per day. A switch from primarily caretaker-delivered food to seeking food on their own indicates that the disbursement of food with less temporal and spatial predictability increased foraging opportunities, which better satisfies appetitive motivations important for psychological well-being. All individuals showed adaptive and normal adrenal responses to change and challenge, with the highest fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations and variability during the construction phase, and a return to previous baseline concentrations in the new habitat, suggesting they acclimated well to the new environment. The elephants expressed a diverse range of species-typical behaviors and demonstrated social dynamics of a healthy herd in both habitats with transitions of individuals through life stages. They exhibited more autonomy in choosing whom to associate with socially and also by choosing different aspects of their environment with regular indoor/outdoor access and extensive resource use in the new habitat. Findings indicate that the complexity and flexibility of the new habitat and habitat management has been effective in improving overall welfare by providing meaningful challenges and the opportunity to express appetitive behaviors, by offering choice in environmental conditions, and by providing the space and resource distribution to support evolving herd dynamics and increased social equity for individuals.

Epidemiology of Traumatic Tusk Fractures of Managed Elephants in North America, South America, Europe, Asia and Australia

“…This study's findings support previous conclusions that improved welfare benefits the overall health of the individual elephant [39]. As elephant management continues to evolve [21], revisiting this survey model in the upcoming decade has the potential to elucidate the true impact of these management practices on reducing the incidence of tusk fractures in managed elephants globally.…”

“…Assuming an average herd size of 9.18 within the study population, approximately 21.8% of individuals would be an established dominant or subordinate, implying that these individuals are overrepresented to go on to develop tusk fractures. Agonistic behaviors establish and reinforce dominance status, which is essential for maintaining harmony and avoiding escalation to aggression [21,22]. The complex social structure of elephants can differ in managed care compared to free-ranging populations.…”

“…Strategies to reduce tusk fractures should be targeted towards reducing tusk-damaging behaviors and encouraging positive conspecific interactions. Ample space and resource distribution allow more opportunity for an elephant to avoid engaging with a herd mate, as well as meeting the need for enough space and resources to support evolving herd dynamics [21]. Provision of appropriate social structure and ample behavioral and environmental enrichment may prevent the occurrence of conflict and stereotypical behaviors amongst herd members [23] and potentially reduce the incidence of unfavorable interactions.…”

Welfare Through Competence: A Framework for Animal-Centric Technology Design

“…For many species, there are known welfare challenges with managed care. For example, spatial considerations to enable captive snakes to adopt straight-line body postures ( 100 ); elevated positioning of features for arboreal animals ( 101 ); optimal enrichment provision for different life stages (suckling piglets, weaning piglets, and fattening pigs) of group-housed pigs on farms ( 37 ); and supporting Asian elephant herd dynamics in zoos with larger and more complex habitats ( 102 ). Designers should take account of these species-specific characteristics through reference to relevant literature and species experts with emphasis on characteristics observed in the wild.…”

The Neurobiology of Behavior and Its Applicability for Animal Welfare: A Review

“…Another example is promoting a more complex and flexible environment for species such as Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ). In them, the less predictability of food distribution encouraged foraging and an average walking of 15 km per day, a species-typical behavior that is beneficial to their physical and mental health by providing adequate space and resources [ 33 ].…”