Substance Abuse: Hallucinogen‐ and MDMA‐Related Disorders

Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder Following Therapeutic Ketamine: A Case Report

“…This finding supports a disinhibition model of HPPD. In addition, GABA-A agonists such as midazolam reduce HPPD symptoms [13].…”

Novel Psychoactive Substances—Recent Progress on Neuropharmacological Mechanisms of Action for Selected Drugs

“…Since thousands of years, indigene cultures in North and South America have used plants and mushrooms containing serotonergic hallucinogens for shamanic rituals and religious ceremonies ( 184 ). The most famous examples are (1) Psilocybe mushrooms containing psilocybin, which were used as Teonanacatl (“god’s flesh”) by the Aztecs, (2) the cactus Lophophora williamsii enclosing mescaline and applied as Peyote or Peyotl by Mexican and North American indigene cultures, and (3) a brew of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis called Ayahuasca utilized by Amazonian indigene cultures containing the psychedelic ingredient DMT together with harmala alkaloids acting as MAOIs inhibitors and preventing the metabolism of DMT ( 185 ).…”

“…Data from the European Drug Emergencies Network have recently shown that, compared to all other investigated drugs, novel tryptamine users have the highest risk [odds ratio (OR) = 12.4] to be treated for psychosis-like symptoms in an emergency care unit, while also LSD use was significantly associated with an increased psychosis risk (OR = 3.1) ( 209 ). Overall frequencies for the development of acute psychosis following experimentally administered LSD range between 0.08 and 4.6%, while patients having a psychiatric disorder before LSD intake displayed the highest risk ( 185 ). However, if 5-HT hallucinogens can also induce long-lasting psychotic disorders is still controversially discussed ( 185 ).…”

“…Overall frequencies for the development of acute psychosis following experimentally administered LSD range between 0.08 and 4.6%, while patients having a psychiatric disorder before LSD intake displayed the highest risk ( 185 ). However, if 5-HT hallucinogens can also induce long-lasting psychotic disorders is still controversially discussed ( 185 ). Beyond acute psychotic reactions including hallucinations, ego impairment, and paranoia, also “bad trips,” panic attacks, confusion, agitation, aggression, and disorientation are common acute psychiatric side effects of classical and novel serotonergic hallucinogens ( 185 , 203 , 205 , 210 ).…”

“…However, if 5-HT hallucinogens can also induce long-lasting psychotic disorders is still controversially discussed ( 185 ). Beyond acute psychotic reactions including hallucinations, ego impairment, and paranoia, also “bad trips,” panic attacks, confusion, agitation, aggression, and disorientation are common acute psychiatric side effects of classical and novel serotonergic hallucinogens ( 185 , 203 , 205 , 210 ). Moreover, also nausea and vomiting, serotonin syndrome including hyperthermia, liver and kidney failures, and cardiovascular complications have been reported for serotonergic hallucinogens.…”