Subsistence Technology of Nigerian Chimpanzees

Fowler, Andrew; Sommer, Volker

doi:10.1007/s10764-007-9166-0

Cited by 64 publications

(46 citation statements)

References 49 publications

Supporting

Mentioning

Contrasting

Unclassified

Order By: Relevance

“…Several lines of evidence now indicate that chimpanzees designated as P. t. ellioti have a unique epidemiological (12), cultural, and ecological heritage (39,40). However, morphological data for P. t. ellioti are very sparse, and the published studies are confounded by inclusion of specimens (41,42) collected outside its geographic range (6).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evidence from Cameroon reveals differences in the genetic structure and histories of chimpanzee populations

Gonder

Locatelli

Ghobrial

et al. 2011

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

105

110

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

The history of the genus Pan is a topic of enduring interest. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are often divided into subspecies, but the population structure and genetic history of chimpanzees across Africa remain unclear. Some population genetics studies have led to speculation that, until recently, this species constituted a single population with ongoing gene flow across its range, which resulted in a continuous gradient of allele frequencies. Chimpanzees, designated here as P. t. ellioti, occupy the Gulf of Guinea region that spans southern Nigeria and western Cameroon at the center of the distribution of this species. Remarkably, few studies have included individuals from this region, hindering the examination of chimpanzee population structure across Africa. Here, we analyzed microsatellite genotypes of 94 chimpanzees, including 32 designated as P. t. ellioti. We find that chimpanzees fall into three major populations: (i) Upper Guinea in western Africa (P. t. verus); (ii) the Gulf of Guinea region (P. t. ellioti); and (iii) equatorial Africa (P. t. troglodytes and P. t. schweinfurthii). Importantly, the Gulf of Guinea population is significantly different genetically from the others, sharing a last common ancestor with the populations in Upper Guinea ∼0.46 million years ago (mya) and equatorial Africa ∼0.32 mya. Equatorial chimpanzees are subdivided into up to three populations occupying southern Cameroon, central Africa, and eastern Africa, which may have constituted a single population until ∼0.10-0.11 mya. Finally, occasional hybridization may be occurring between the Gulf of Guinea and southern Cameroon populations.chimpanzees | phylogenetics | population biology | microsatellites R evealing the histories of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) is of widespread and enduring interest due to their close relationship with humans. A recent proliferation of research shows that we are just beginning to unravel their complex histories (1), and even now, we still debate the number of species and subspecies belonging to the genus Pan. Most authorities agree that chimpanzees and bonobos should be classified as different species, with their ranges separated by the Congo River ( Fig. 1; ref. 2). Chimpanzees are frequently further divided into subspecies across tropical Africa (2, 3), but this classification is disputed (4). P. t. verus occupies the Upper Guinea region of western Africa (2, 3). The range of P. t. troglodytes extends through central Africa. P. t. schweinfurthii occupies eastern Africa (2, 3) and has been proposed to be split into two subspecies, P. t. schweinfurthii and P. t. marungensis, based on craniometric variation (5).The subspecies name P. t. ellioti (6), formerly P. t. vellerosus (7, 8), has been proposed for chimpanzees from the Gulf of Guinea region, which spans southern Nigeria and western Cameroon (9). However, relatively little is known about the genetic history of chimpanzees from this region, and some question their distinctiveness from adjacent populations (4). Ana...

show abstract

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evidence from Cameroon reveals differences in the genetic structure and histories of chimpanzee populations

Gonder

Locatelli

Ghobrial

et al. 2011

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

105

110

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Hicks et al DOI: 10.1159/000492998 Estienne et al, 2017a, b], and P. t. ellioti at Gashaka-Gumti [Fowler and Sommer, 2007] and Ngel Nyaki [Dutton and Chapman, 2015] (Fig. 12).…”

Section: Behavioural Continuity Across Northern Drc: a Potential Chimmentioning

confidence: 97%

Bili-Uéré: A Chimpanzee Behavioural Realm in Northern Democratic Republic of Congo

Hicks¹,

Kühl²,

Boesch³

et al. 2019

IJFP

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

To improve our understanding of the evolutionary origins of culture and technology in humans, it is vital that we document the full extent of behavioural diversity in our great ape relatives. About half of the world’s remaining chimpanzees (Pan spp.) live in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), yet until now we have known almost nothing about their behaviour. Here we describe the insect-related tool technology of Bili-Uéré chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) inhabiting an area of at least a 50,000-km² area in northern DRC, as well as their percussive technology associated with food processing. Over a 12-year period, we documented chimpanzee tools and artefacts at 20 survey areas and gathered data on dung, feeding remains and sleeping nests. We describe a new chimpanzee tool kit: long probes used to harvest epigaeic driver ants (Dorylus spp.), short probes used to extract ponerine ants and the arboreal nests of stingless bees, wands to dip for D. kohli and stout digging sticks used to access underground meliponine bee nests. Epigaeic Dorylus tools were significantly longer than the other tool types, and D. kohli tools were significantly thinner. Tools classified as terrestrial honey-digging sticks were a significant predictor for brushed and blunted tool ends, consistent with their presumed use. We describe two potential new tool types, an “ant scoop” and a “fruit hammer.” We document an extensive percussive technology used to process termite mounds of Cubitermes sp. and Thoracotermes macrothorax and hard-shelled fruits such as Strychnos, along with evidence of the pounding open of African giant snails and tortoises. We encountered some geographic variation in behaviour: we found honey-digging tools, long driver ant probes and fruit-pounding sites only to the north of the Uele River; there were more epigaeic Dorylus tools to the north and more ponerine ant tools to the south. We found no evidence of termite-fishing, despite the availability of Macrotermes muelleri mounds throughout the region. This lack of evidence is consistent with the results of dung washes, which revealed a substantial proportion of driver ants, but no evidence of Macrotermes or other termites. Our results allow us to describe a new chimpanzee behavioural complex, characterised by a general similarity of multiple behaviours across a large, ecologically diverse region but with subtle differences in prey choice and techniques. We propose that this widespread and related suite of behaviours be referred to as the Bili-Uéré Chimpanzee Behavioural Realm. Possible explanations for this pattern are a recent chimpanzee expansion across the region and the interconnectedness of this population across at least the entirety of northern DRC.

show abstract

“…Cameroon, Central African Republic, and Tanzania, it is less common for chimpanzees to use a tool to dig or pry open subterranean hives (Deblauwe 2006;Fay and Carroll 1994;Fowler and Sommer 2007;Goodall 1986;Hicks et al 2005). Researchers have observed chimpanzees using a tool as a lever to widen the access point to extract honey in Tanzania, Central African Republic, Gabon, and Republic of Congo (Bermejo and Illera 1999;Fay and Carroll 1994;Hicks et al 2005;Sanz and Morgan 2007;Tutin et al 1995;Wallauer, pers.…”

Section: Goualougo Roc (This Study)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Flexible and Persistent Tool-using Strategies in Honey-gathering by Wild Chimpanzees

2009

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Several populations of wild chimpanzees use tools to raid bee nests, but preliminary observations of chimpanzees in the Congo Basin indicate that they may have developed sophisticated technical solutions to gather honey that differ from those of apes in other regions. Despite the lack of habituated groups within the range of the central subspecies, there have been several reports of different types of tools used by chimpanzees to open beehives and gather honey. Researchers have observed some of these behaviors (honey dipping) in populations of western and eastern chimpanzees, whereas others (hive pounding) may be limited to this region. Toward evaluating hypotheses of regional tool using patterns, we provide the first repeated direct observations and systematic documentation of tool use in honey-gathering by a population of Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Between 2002 and 2006, we observed 40 episodes of tool use in honey-gathering by chimpanzees in the Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo. Pounding was the most common and successful strategy to open beehives. Chimpanzees at this site used several tools in a single tool-using episode and could also attribute multiple functions to a single tool. They exhibited flexibility in responses toward progress in opening a hive and hierarchical structuring of tool sequences. Our results support suggestions of regional tool using traditions in honeygathering, which could be shaped by variation in bee ecology across the chimpanzee range. Further, we suggest that these chimpanzees may have an enhanced propensity to use tool sets that could be related to other aspects of their tool repertoire. Clearly, there is still much to be learned about the behavioral diversity of chimpanzees residing within the Congo Basin.

show abstract

Subsistence Technology of Nigerian Chimpanzees

Cited by 64 publications

References 49 publications

Evidence from Cameroon reveals differences in the genetic structure and histories of chimpanzee populations

Evidence from Cameroon reveals differences in the genetic structure and histories of chimpanzee populations

Bili-Uéré: A Chimpanzee Behavioural Realm in Northern Democratic Republic of Congo

Flexible and Persistent Tool-using Strategies in Honey-gathering by Wild Chimpanzees

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About