Subcritical Water Extraction for Valorisation of Almond Skin from Almond Industrial Processing

Abstract

Almond skin (AS) is an agro-industrial residue from almond processing that has a high potential for valorisation. In this study, subcritical water extraction (SWE) was applied at two temperatures (160 and 180 °C) to obtain phenolic-rich extracts (water-soluble fraction) and cellulose fibres (insoluble fraction) from AS. The extraction conditions affected the composition and properties of both valorised fractions. The dry extracts obtained at 180 °C were richer in phenolics (161 vs. 101 mg GAE. g−1 defatted almond skin (DAS)), with greater antioxidant potential (1.063 vs. 1.490 mg DAS.mg−1 DPPH) and showed greater antibacterial effect (lower MIC values) against L. innocua (34 vs. 90 mg·mL−1) and E. coli (48 vs. 90 mg·mL−1) than those obtained at 160 °C, despite the lower total solid yield (21 vs. 29%) obtained in the SWE process. The purification of cellulose from the SWE residues, using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), revealed that AS is not a good source of cellulose material since the bleached fractions showed low yields (20–21%) and low cellulose purity (40–50%), even after four bleaching cycles (1 h) at pH 12 and 8% H2O2. Nevertheless, the application of a green, scalable, and toxic solvent-free SWE process was highly useful for obtaining AS bioactive extracts for different food, cosmetic, or pharmaceutical applications.

Subcritical water extraction for recovering cellulose fibres from Posidonia oceanica waste

“…Bleaching treatments were carried out on both R150 and R170 residues obtained from SWE to purify the cellulose in the bres, as described by Freitas et al (2023b). Each sample (R150 and R170) was submitted to bleaching with 4 and 8% (v/v) hydrogen peroxide solutions, using a solution-solid ratio of concentration (4% v/v and 8% v/v): BR150-1, BR150-2, BR150-3, BR150-4, BR170-1, BR170-2, BR170-3, BR170-4.…”