Studying Executive Function Skills in Young Children in Low‐ and Middle‐Income Countries: Progress and Directions

Abstract

As a culturally universal set of cognitive skills that promote goal-directed behaviors, executive functions (EFs) support milestones of early childhood development, such as learning and forming social relationships. A growing base of evidence shows commonality around the world in EFs' validity, biological basis, and family predictors. But we need more research to understand more fully how to promote the development of EF skills in young children from low-and middle-income countries. In this article, we highlight recent studies on EFs in those countries and propose directions for research on measurement, contextual influences, and interventions. The global health community needs an index of how early life experiences affect child development beyond measures of physical growth, and the global education community needs an instrument to screen children for school readiness beyond measures of preacademic skills. Assessments of EF can address these needs. Research on emergent EFs in low-and middleincome countries can also support the design and evaluation of multisector programs and policies.

Biological sensitivity to context in Pakistani preschoolers: Hair cortisol and family wealth are interactively associated with girls’ cognitive skills

“…In contrast, HCCs were not directly correlated with verbal intelligence or EFs. Although our study cannot address the mechanisms behind this divergent finding, it is feasible that the association between HCC and cognitive skills may differ for crystallized knowledge, deduced from exposure to information and facts, versus fluid cognitive skills, which reflect children's capacity to process and integrate information (Obradović & Willoughby, 2019 (Obradović, 2016). For example, while some previous work has shown that higher physiological reactivity marks greater biological sensitivity to family resources (Ellis, & Boyce, 2011;Essex et al, 2011;Obradović et al, 2010;Obradović, Yousafzai, et al, 2016),…”

“…In contrast, HCCs were not directly correlated with verbal intelligence or EFs. Although our study cannot address the mechanisms behind this divergent finding, it is feasible that the association between HCC and cognitive skills may differ for crystallized knowledge, deduced from exposure to information and facts, versus fluid cognitive skills, which reflect children's capacity to process and integrate information (Obradović & Willoughby, 2019). Future research should continue to investigate the associations between stress hormones and different aspects of early cognitive development in children from LMIC settings.…”

“…To assess EFs, we used a composite measure of six developmentally and culturally appropriate tasks which have undergone extensive cultural adaptation and have been successfully validated on this sample (see Obradović et al, 2019). The tasks assessed children's inhibitory control (ability to suppress a dominant response in favor of a subdominant response), short-term memory (ability to hold, update, and manipulate information in the mind over short periods of time), and cognitive flexibility (ability to switch flexibly between two different dimensions).…”

“…We know very little about the interplay between family socioeconomic resources and HCCs in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs). Although there is considerable variation across LMICs, communities, and families, many children experience numerous, co‐occurring forms of adversity that hinder cognitive development, including poverty, nutritional deficiencies, environmental toxins, and inadequate cognitive stimulation (Black et al., 2013; Obradović & Willoughby, 2019; Walker et al, 2007). In this context, parental education is a poor proxy for family socioeconomic status, because most women are likely to never complete primary education (UNICEF, 2013).…”

Testing the Efficacy of the Red-Light Purple-Light Games in Preprimary Classrooms in Kenya

“…EF skills can be improved through intervention, and early childhood may be a sensitive period for interventions. Although most of what is known about EF skills is derived from research in high-income countries, EF skills are germane to early learning and school readiness in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) ( Obradović and Willoughby, 2019 ). There is global interest among educators and policymakers in identifying practical and developmentally appropriate strategies for improving children’s EF skills.…”