“…Surrogate modeling addresses this challenge by creating data-driven models that approximate the behavior of physical models and predict the outputs of these complex systems with much less computational effort. This makes them extremely valuable in scenarios where rapid decision-making is crucial, such as emergency response planning, environmental impact assessments, or policy development [11,38,60,102,132,179,180,184]. Surrogate models are typically developed using advanced machine learning tools [11,60,144,158,179,184] (e.g., Koopman operator [15]) or statistical methods [43], and are trained on simulated data generated by complex physical models.…”