Studies of the effect of change of drive: I. From hunger to thirst in a T-maze.

Medial prefrontal cortex guides goal-directed decision-making about hunger and thirst

“…This was not due to greater motivation in hunger because lever-press reaction times for water were faster in thirst ( Fig. 2e) consistent with prior reports 24,27 , and erroneous responses were significantly slower than correct responses ( Fig. 2f).…”

“…Most fluids are consumed during meals, and humans as well as other animals obtain a substantial amount of their water intake from within their food sources 4,20 . Thirst is known to suppress food consumption (e.g., dehydration-induced anorexia 21 ) for diets that have very low water content such that the food and food-cues have aversive properties in thirst [22][23][24] . We were interested in more naturalistic conditions that permit decision-making in hunger and thirst based on physiological need without introducing the aversiveness of dry food in thirst states.…”

Recovery of function after brain damage: Toward understanding the deficit

“…In the case of motivation, these consequences involve the individual's perception of its intrinsic state, while in the case of sensory neocortical ablation, these consequences involve the individual's perception of the extrinsic environment. For example, a change in motivation can serve as a discriminative cue (Hull, 1933;Kendler, Karasik, & Schrier, 1954;Kendler & Levin, 1951;Kendler, Levin, Altchek, & Peters, 1952;Leeper, 1935;Wickens, Hall, & Reid, 1949). To serve as a discriminative cue, changes in motivation must, by definition, be perceptually distinct.…”

The model in theory construction.

“…In this example, some such analogy with conditioning is said to provide an empirical or pretheoretical model (Koch, 1954). In contrast, the fractional anticipatory response mechanism-r a theory- (Amsel, 1958;Kendler & Levine, 1951;Moltz, 1957;Spence, 195la, 195Ib;etc. ) illustrates the second level of representative functioning for the conditioning model.…”

“…The probability calculus utilized in statistical learning theory (Estes, 1959) exemplifies such a mathematical model, while some of the relations holding among electronic communication systems play a role in providing the inference rules or calculus for information theory (Grant, 1954). Another example is the laws of classical conditioning which, alone or supplemented, are the means by which inferences are drawn in application of r g theory to a given experiment (Kendler & Levine, 1951;Moltz & Maddi, 1956).…”