Stressful Experiences of Masculinity Among U.S.-Born and Immigrant Asian American Men

Abstract

Explaining how stereotypes and norms influence role-identities during reflected appraisal processes, we develop a theory about diverse groups of minority men—the “minority masculinity stress theory”—and apply it to Asian American men. We conceptually integrate hegemonic masculinity, stereotypes, and mental health to examine how Asian American men experience masculinity and how their experiences are uniquely stressful. We analyze elicited text from an open-ended questionnaire to explain two experiences of masculinity-related stress: trying to live up to the masculine ideal and enacting work-related role-identities. Regarding the former, we discuss four illustrations—toughness, body image, restrictive emotionality, and heterosexuality—and two involving the latter—achiever and provider. We found that Asian American men receive stereotypical reflected appraisals that contradict potentially positive self-concepts and emphasize achievement beyond typical standards of hegemonic masculinity. Moreover, Asian American men’s role-identities contradict hegemonic masculinity, resulting in reflected appraisals that predispose them toward stress.

From Forever Foreigners to Model Minority: Asian American Men in Sports

“…Assumptions about Asian American men range from hypermasculinization to demasculinization. The findings of this study were consistent with current literature on Asian American manhood, which discusses both the aggressive and threatening ideas of Asian American men (manifested in the Yellow Peril and Kung Fu mater) and the effeminate and emasculate stereotypes (for example, socially awkward and nerdy Long Duk Dong in the movie Sixteen candles and a flamboyant drug lord Leslie Chow in the movie The Hangover) (Espiritu, 2008;Lu, & Wong, 2013;Shek, 2006). Ed shared that people often made assumptions that he was a martial artist:…”

“…Probably not my best moment, I was very vain, very selfish almost, I just felt the need to really like prove myself again. Similar to the stories of these Asian American men, studies on Asian American men and masculinities reveal that Asian American men view sports and athleticism as masculine necessities (Chen, 1999;Lu, & Wong, 2013).…”

“…regardless of the length of their stay in the United States (Chou, & Feagin, 2015;Wu, 2002). The question stems from the perception that Asian Americans are not a legitimate part of the country; they are seen as strangers and outsiders that are incapable of assimilating into the U.S. Asian Americans are positioned in an intersectional status by both race and foreignness (Lu, & Wong, 2013).…”

“…the stereotypical association of Asian American men with high intelligence works against them. The model minority stereotype of "nerdy and geeky" Asian American men strips them of strong and powerful masculinity as "nerd" perpetuates frail, soft and pejoratively feminine characteristics, contrasted to strong and rough masculine characteristics (Cheng, 1996, Lu andWong 2013). The ideological assaults on Asian American men as effeminate, emasculated, and androgynous de-sexualized uni-dimensional caricatures have been an ongoing part of popular media and literature in the U.S. history (Eng, 2001, Espiritu, 2008.…”

Masculinities Through a Cross‐Disciplinary Lens: Lessons from Sociology and Psychology

“…For example, the historical and contemporary experiences of Black men in the United States – from lynching to prison incarceration – reveal the multiple ways in which subjugated masculinities may be socially constructed as far more dangerous than hegemonic masculinity itself (Collins ). Asian‐American men report experiencing negative stereotypes that characterize their masculinities, paradoxically, as either too domineering or too weak (Chua and Fujino ; Lu and Wong ).…”