Stress Generation and Adolescent Depression: Contribution of Interpersonal Stress Responses

Abstract

This research examined the proposal that ineffective responses to common interpersonal problems disrupt youths’ relationships, which, in turn, contributes to depression during adolescence. Youth (86 girls, 81 boys; M age = 12.41, SD = 1.19) and their primary female caregivers participated in a three-wave longitudinal study. Youth completed a measure assessing interpersonal stress responses; youth and caregivers completed semi-structured interviews assessing youths’ life stress and psychopathology. Consistent with the hypothesized model, ineffective stress responses (low levels of effortful engagement, high levels of involuntary engagement and disengagement) predicted the generation of subsequent interpersonal stress, which partially accounted for the association between stress responses and depression over time. Moreover, results revealed that self-generated interpersonal, but not noninterpersonal stress, predicted depression, and that this explanatory model was specific to the prediction of depression but not anxiety. This research builds on interpersonal stress generation models of depression, and highlights the importance of implementing depression-focused intervention programs that promote effective stress responses and adaptive interpersonal relationships during adolescence.

Responses to Interpersonal Stress: Normative Changes Across Childhood and the Impact of Peer Victimization

“…This framework distinguishes two orthogonal dimensions: (1) effortful coping versus involuntary reactions; and (2) engagement with versus disengagement from stressors, yielding four stress response categories: effortful engagement (efforts to modify or adapt to stressors; e.g., problem solving, cognitive restructuring), effortful disengagement (efforts directed away from stressors; e.g., avoidance, denial), involuntary engagement (automatic responses involving over-engagement with stressors; e.g., rumination, emotional arousal), and involuntary disengagement (automatic responses involving under-engagement with stressors; e.g., emotional numbing, escape). Consistent with theoretical perspectives on the benefits of active coping responses (Compas et al, 2001), effortful engagement consistently is associated with positive social and emotional well-being (Flynn, & Rudolph, 2011; Wadsworth et al, 2004), whereas involuntary responses are associated with maladjustment (Connor-Smith et al, 2000; Flynn & Rudolph, 2011; Wadsworth et al, 2004) in adolescence. Research on the correlates of effortful disengagement has been inconsistent, yielding a mix of positive (e.g., Troop-Gordon, Rudolph, Sugimura, & Little, 2015), negative (Connor-Smith et al, 2000; Sontag & Graber, 2010), or null associations (Compas et al, 2001; Flynn & Rudolph, 2007).…”

“…Although accumulating evidence links stress responses to physical and mental health (Connor-Smith et al, 2000; Flynn, & Rudolph, 2011; Wadsworth et al, 2004), far less is known about how stress responses change with age and how individual differences in stress responses develop (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007). This study addressed these limitations by providing evidence that normative shifts reflect increases in adaptive stress responses and reductions in responses that compromise well-being.…”

“…Thus, it will be important to test associations between early peer victimization and stress responses later in adolescence. Furthermore, maladaptive stress responses also may contribute to interpersonal difficulties (Flynn & Rudolph, 2011; Visconti & Troop-Gordon, 2010). Future studies may find that peer victimization in childhood represents just the beginning of an escalating cycle of problematic stress responses, social difficulties, and psychological maladjustment.…”

Rumination about social stress mediates the association between peer victimization and depressive symptoms during middle childhood

“…Research in adults also links depressive rumination following stress to depressive symptoms (Michl, McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991). More broadly, lower levels of effortful engagement (e.g., problem solving) and higher levels of involuntary engagement (e.g., rumination) responses to peer stress predict youth depressive symptoms over time (Agoston & Rudolph, 2011; Flynn & Rudolph, 2011; Osowiecki & Compas, 1999; Troop-Gordon et al, 2015). …”

Adolescent depression aetiology: A systematic review

“…Thus the stress generation model is an extension on the diathesis -stress model according to Rapee & Kercher (2009). As in Flynn & Rudolph (2010) study, 756 adolescents completed depression questionnaires and cognitive vulnerabilities (tendency to ruminate) were measured in conjunction with stressful life events. This identified the adolescents with a number of stressful life events and high cognitive vulnerability scores experienced higher levels of depression, which suggests that cognitive vulnerabilities not only predicts risk of depression but also prevents responses to stress and may also play a part in the future generation of stressful events.…”