Stress exposure and stress generation in child and adolescent depression: A latent trait-state-error approach to longitudinal analyses.

Abstract

In 2 longitudinal studies of negative life events and depressive symptoms in adolescents (N = 708) and in children (N = 508), latent trait-state-error structural equation models tested both the stress generation hypothesis and the stress exposure hypothesis. Results strongly suggested that self-reports of depressive symptoms reflect the influence of a perfectly stable trait factor as well as a less stable state factor. Support emerged for both the stress generation model and the stress exposure model. When the state depression factor was modeled as predicting stress, support for the stress generation model appeared to increase with age. When the trait depression factor was modeled as the predictor of stress, support for the stress generation model did not vary with the child's age. In both models, support for the stress exposure remained relatively constant across age.

The dynamics of personality and identity in adolescence

“…However, girls exhibited higher levels of relative stability in the depression models when compared to boys, whereas middle to late adolescent exhibited higher levels of relative stability in the aggression models when compared to early to middle adolescents. Even though differences in relative stability are generally thought to affect the magnitude of cross-lagged associations (e.g., Cole et al, 2006), the gender and age cohort differences in stability paths we found do not seem to have a significant effect on cross-lagged associations.…”

“…However, personality traits or problem behavior symptoms may turn out to be so stable that little variance remains left to be explained by other variables. To overcome this problem, Cole et al (2006) applied Trait-State models to depression data in which a perfectly stable component (i.e., trait) and the part of the construct that does change (i.e., state) are distinguished. With this approach, Cole et al (2006) showed that the effects of negative events on depression became much stronger once the trait component was statistically controlled for.…”

“…To overcome this problem, Cole et al (2006) applied Trait-State models to depression data in which a perfectly stable component (i.e., trait) and the part of the construct that does change (i.e., state) are distinguished. With this approach, Cole et al (2006) showed that the effects of negative events on depression became much stronger once the trait component was statistically controlled for. It would have been valuable to apply Trait-State models to our data, but these models are very demanding as they require ideally 8 waves of data on at least 500 participants assuming at least moderate occasion factor stability (Cole, Martin, & Steiger, 2005).…”

Early childhood adversity and adolescent depression: the mediating role of continued stress

“…Previously Cole et al (2006) demonstrated that biannual reports of discrete life event occurrence and impact were correlated over a few years' time in both elementary and middle school samples. Harkness et al (2006) have also reported that retrospectively reported childhood abuse and neglect were associated with greater levels of chronic difficulties in adolescence.…”

“…Early adversity may be a marker of continuing exposure to negative stressors, such that those with exposure to childhood negative events and circumstances are more likely to continue to be exposed to stressful events and circumstances (Pearlin, 1989), especially adolescents who are still living at home. Several investigators have demonstrated that the number of adversities and life events experienced in childhood and adolescence is associated with the number of life events and chronic stressors experienced even into adulthood Turner & Butler, 2003;Turner & Turner, 2005), and Cole et al (2006) demonstrated considerable continuity in burden and number of life events in middle and elementary school samples. Some of the effects of early adversity on adolescent depression may be due less to their special status as 'early' as to their continuity with later stressors.…”