‘Strengthening the fungal cell wall through chitin-glucan cross-links: effects on morphogenesis and cell integrity’

Arroyo, Javier; Farkaš, Vladimı́r; Sanz, Ana B.; Cabib, Enrico

doi:10.1111/cmi.12615

Cited by 99 publications

(84 citation statements)

References 80 publications

(136 reference statements)

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“…Comparative genomic and proteomic analyses of ascomycete fungal species have identified six families of conserved, GPI proteins: Sps2, Gas/Gel, Dfg, Plb, Crh, and Yps (79,96). The Sps2 and Dfg5 families are involved in cell wall construction, and the Crh family is involved in cross-linking β-(1,6) glucan and chitin (97)(98)(99).…”

Section: Transglycosidasesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Fungal Cell Wall: Structure, Biosynthesis, and Function

2017

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The molecular composition of the cell wall is critical for the biology and ecology of each fungal species. Fungal walls are composed of matrix components that are embedded and linked to scaffolds of fibrous load-bearing polysaccharides. Most of the major cell wall components of fungal pathogens are not represented in humans, other mammals, or plants, and therefore the immune systems of animals and plants have evolved to recognize many of the conserved elements of fungal walls. For similar reasons the enzymes that assemble fungal cell wall components are excellent targets for antifungal chemotherapies and fungicides. However, for fungal pathogens, the cell wall is often disguised since key signature molecules for immune recognition are sometimes masked by immunologically inert molecules. Cell wall damage leads to the activation of sophisticated fail-safe mechanisms that shore up and repair walls to avoid catastrophic breaching of the integrity of the surface. The frontiers of research on fungal cell walls are moving from a descriptive phase defining the underlying genes and component parts of fungal walls to more dynamic analyses of how the various components are assembled, cross-linked, and modified in response to environmental signals. This review therefore discusses recent advances in research investigating the composition, synthesis, and regulation of cell walls and how the cell wall is targeted by immune recognition systems and the design of antifungal diagnostics and therapeutics.

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Section: Transglycosidasesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Fungal Cell Wall: Structure, Biosynthesis, and Function

2017

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“…However, lacking direct evidence for enzyme-mediated plasticity at the hyphal apex, some researchers suggested that hyphal tip growth does not involve hydrolytic enzymes; instead, they hypothesized that the new synthesized wall is initially plastic at the growing hyphal apex until it is made rigid at the nongrowing hyphal zone behind the apex by cross-linkage between chitin and ␤-glucan chains (39). Because deletion of a single chitinase gene in different fungal species (40)(41)(42)(43), even all five endochitinase genes in Aspergillus fumigatus (44), Chi1 to Chi5, did not result in apparent growth defects, except for one report that deletion of the chitinase Chit-1 gene in Neurospora crassa leads to a reduction in hyphal growth (45), some researchers concluded that chitinases may have only minor effects on hyphal tip growth (46), whereas other scientists attributed the lack of phenotype in the deletion mutants to redundancy between many members within the chitinase family (7,8). In contrast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae has only two chitinases, Cts1 and Cts2 (8,47), and knockout of the Cts1coding gene leads to a defect in yeast cell separation and the formation of yeast cell aggregates due to the existence of chitin in the yeast primary septum, indicating that chitinases function at sites at which hydrolysis of the cell wall is necessary.…”

Section: Figmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…All of them exhibited similarly transverse cellulose microfibrils (53). However, the chitin microfibrils in fungal cell walls are covalently linked to the nonreducing end of ␤-glucans (7,9,10,54); therefore, only hydrolysis can disrupt this covalent cross-linkage between chitin microfibrils and ␤-glucans to induce fungal cell wall extension.…”

Section: Figmentioning

confidence: 99%

Chitinases Play a Key Role in Stipe Cell Wall Extension in the Mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea

Zhou

Kang

Liu

et al. 2019

Appl Environ Microbiol

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The elongation growth of the mushroom stipe is a characteristic but not well-understood morphogenetic event of basidiomycetes. We found that extending native stipe cell walls of Coprinopsis cinerea were associated with the release of N-acetylglucosamine and chitinbiose and with chitinase activity. Two chitinases among all detected chitinases from C. cinerea, ChiE1 and ChiIII, reconstituted heatinactivated stipe wall extension and released N-acetylglucosamine and chitinbiose. Interestingly, both ChiE1 and ChiIII hydrolyze insoluble crystalline chitin powder, while other C. cinerea chitinases do not, suggesting that crystalline chitin components of the stipe cell wall are the target of action for ChiE1 and ChiIII. ChiE1-or ChiIII-reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe walls showed maximal extension activity at pH 4.5, consistent with the optimal pH for native stipe wall extension in vitro; ChiE1or ChiIII-reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe wall extension activities were associated with stipe elongation growth regions; and the combination of ChiE1 and ChiIII showed a synergism to reconstitute heat-inactivated stipe wall extension at a low action concentration. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images showed that the inner surface of acid-induced extended native stipe cell walls and ChiE1-or ChiIII-reconstituted extended heat-inactivated stipe cell walls exhibited a partially broken parallel microfibril architecture; however, these broken transversely arranged microfibrils were not observed in the unextended stipe cell walls that were induced by neutral pH buffer or heat inactivation. Double knockdown of ChiE1 and ChiIII resulted in the reduction of stipe elongation, mycelium growth, and heatsensitive cell wall extension of native stipes. These results indicate a chitinasehydrolyzing mechanism for stipe cell wall extension. IMPORTANCE A remarkable feature in the development of basidiomycete fruiting bodies is stipe elongation growth that results primarily from manifold cell elongation. Some scientists have suggested that stipe elongation is the result of enzymatic hydrolysis of cell wall polysaccharides, while other scientists have proposed the possibility that stipe elongation results from nonhydrolytic disruption of the hydrogen bonds between cell wall polysaccharides. Here, we show direct evidence for a chitinase-hydrolyzing mechanism of stipe cell wall elongation in the model mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea that is different from the expansin nonhydrolysis mechanism of plant cell wall extension. We presumed that in the growing stipe cell walls, parallel chitin microfibrils are tethered by ␤-1,6-branched ␤-1,3-glucans, and that the breaking of the tether by chitinases leads to separation of these microfibrils to increase their spacing for insertion of new synthesized chitin and ␤-1,3-glucans under turgor pressure in vivo.O ne of the remarkable characteristics of the development of basidiomycete fruiting bodies is stipe elongation growth that results primarily from manifold cell elongation (1-5). The ...

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“…This suggests that either the cell wall of S. occidentalis does not contain chitin, or that chitinase is not produced by T. harzianum in sufficient quantity to be detected by LC-MS/MS. The latter is more likely as chitin is expected to be present in the cell wall of S. occidentalis, based on the robustness of S. occidentalis cell wall and the fact that chitin is known to contribute to the strength of cell walls (Arroyo et al 2016;Lamers et al 2016). Moreover, chitin is found in many fungal cell walls such as Candida sp., and as Schwanniomyces sp.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Production of tailor-made enzymes to facilitate lipid extraction from the oleaginous yeast Schwanniomyces occidentalis

et al. 2020

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Due to the depletion of fossil fuel resources and concern about increasing atmospheric CO 2 levels, the production of microbial oil as source for energy and chemicals is considered as a sustainable alternative. A promising candidate strain for the production of microbial oil is the oleaginous yeast Schwanniomyces occidentalis CBS 2864. To compete with fossil resources, cultivation and processing of S. occidentalis requires improvement. Currently, different cell wall disruption techniques based on mechanical, chemical, physiological, and biological methods are being investigated using a variety of oil producing yeasts and microalgae. Most of these techniques are not suitable for upscaling because they are technically or energetically unfavorable. Therefore, new techniques have to be developed to overcome this challenge. Here, we demonstrate an effective mild enzymatic approach for cell disruption to facilitate lipid extraction from the oleaginous yeast S. occidentalis. Most oil was released by applying 187 mg L −1 tailor-made enzymes from Trichoderma harzianum CBS 146429 against the yeast cell wall of S. occidentalis at pH 5.0 and 40 °C with 4 h of incubation time after applying 1 M NaOH as a pretreatment step.

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‘Strengthening the fungal cell wall through chitin-glucan cross-links: effects on morphogenesis and cell integrity’

Cited by 99 publications

References 80 publications

The Fungal Cell Wall: Structure, Biosynthesis, and Function

The Fungal Cell Wall: Structure, Biosynthesis, and Function

Chitinases Play a Key Role in Stipe Cell Wall Extension in the Mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea

Production of tailor-made enzymes to facilitate lipid extraction from the oleaginous yeast Schwanniomyces occidentalis

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