Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

The main challenges of liquid hydrogen (H2) storage as one of the most promising techniques for large-scale transport and long-term storage include its high specific energy consumption (SEC), low exergy efficiency, high total expenses, and boil-off gas losses. This article reviews different approaches to improving H2 liquefaction methods, including the implementation of absorption cooling cycles (ACCs), ejector cooling units, liquid nitrogen/liquid natural gas (LNG)/liquid air cold energy recovery, cascade liquefaction processes, mixed refrigerant systems, integration with other structures, optimization algorithms, combined with renewable energy sources, and the pinch strategy. This review discusses the economic, safety, and environmental aspects of various improvement techniques for H2 liquefaction systems in more detail. Standards and codes for H2 liquefaction technologies are presented, and the current status and future potentials of H2 liquefaction processes are investigated. The cost-efficient H2 liquefaction systems are those with higher production rates (>100 tonne/day), higher efficiency (>40%), lower SEC (<6 kWh/kgLH2), and lower investment costs (1–2 $/kgLH2). Increasing the stages in the conversion of ortho- to para-H2 lowers the SEC and increases the investment costs. Moreover, using low-temperature waste heat from various industries and renewable energy in the ACC for precooling is significantly more efficient than electricity generation in power generation cycles to be utilized in H2 liquefaction cycles. In addition, the substitution of LNG cold recovery for the precooling cycle is associated with the lower SEC and cost compared to its combination with the precooling cycle.

Thermoeconomic Analysis of an Innovative Integrated System for Cogeneration of Liquid Hydrogen and Biomethane by a Cryogenic-Based Biogas Upgrading Cycle and Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolysis

“…The magnitude of conversion is correlated with the reaction temperature, as given by eq : , Conversion = C 0 + C 1 × T + C 2 × T 2 In eq , C 0 , C 1 and C 2 are the conversion factors and can be determined based on experimental data . Also, T is the temperature of H 2 in Kelvin.…”

“…The primary limitation in handling H 2 on large-scale storage and distribution is its low energy density in the gaseous state . H 2 storage can be classified into three primary approaches: physical-based methods (including compressed gas, liquid, and two-phase storage), material-based methods (e.g., both physical and chemical adsorption), and chemical-based approaches (such as reformed organic fuels and liquid organic H 2 carriers). , Employing efficient liquefaction and chemical methods has become imperative to facilitate the extensive and long transportation of H 2 . Chemical approaches, including ammonia, ammonium bicarbonate, formic acid, methanol, and methane, offer viable solutions for H 2 storage.…”

“…Why Energy Storage and How? Energy storage is being explored to enhance and address the imbalance between the production and consumption of renewable energy . Large-scale energy storage, characterized by considerations such as energy density, capacity, costs, and potentials, can take various forms, including mechanical (flywheels, compressed air, and pumped hydro storage), thermal (sensible heat and phase change), electrical (superconducting magnetic and supercapacitors), electrochemical (batteries), and chemical (hydrogen/H 2 ) processes. − Pumped hydro storage is recognized as the most advanced commercial storage technology among mechanical storage processes/systems.…”

Термодинамічний Цикл Регазифікации Зріджених Газів З Одержанням Механічної Енергії

“…its pressure and temperature relative to the environment increase, thereby creating a positive potential difference. To realize this process, heat and work are consumed in thermal machines -the heat of combustion of fuel and the mechanical energy of the pump compressing the working body [5][6][7].…”

Pt/CB-Catalyzed Chemoselective Hydrogenation Using in situ-Generated Hydrogen by Microwave Mediated Dehydrogenation of Methylcyclohexane under Continuous-Flow Conditions

“…H₂ also serves as a vital reducing agent in organic synthesis [9 and 10]. However, large-scale storage, transportation, and handling of molecular hydrogen are challenging, not only because of regulatory restrictions on highly flammable and explosive gases but also due to the need for control based on physical properties such as specific gravity, boiling point, and boil-off, as well as infrastructure development and other cost issues [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. In response to these challenges, chemically stable substances known as liquid organic chemical hydrides (LOCH) have received much attention [13,[19][20][21][22][23][24].…”