Stocks and Flows of PBDEs in Products from Use to Waste in the U.S. and Canada from 1970 to 2020

Abstract

The time-dependent stock of PBDEs contained in in-use products (excluding building materials and large vehicles) was estimated for the U.S. and Canada from 1970 to 2020 based on product consumption patterns, PBDE contents, and product lifespan. The stocks of penta- and octaBDE peaked in in-use products at 17,000 (95% confidence interval: 6000-70,000) and 4,000 (1,000-50,000) tonnes in 2004, respectively, and for decaBDE at 140,000 (40,000-300,000) tonnes in 2008. Products dominating PBDE usage were polyurethane foam used in furniture (65% of pentaBDE), casings of electrical and electronic equipment or EEE (80% of octaBDE), and EEE and automotive seating (35% of decaBDE for each category). The largest flow of PBDEs in products, excluding automotive sector, to the waste phase occurred between 2005 and 2008 at ∼10,000 tonnes per year. Total consumption of penta-, octa-, and decaBDE from 1970 to 2020 in products considered was estimated at ∼46,000, ∼25,000, and ∼380,000 tonnes, respectively. Per capita usage was estimated at 10-250, 10-150, and 200-2000 g·capita(-1)·y(-1) for penta-, octa-, and decaBDE, respectively, over the time span. Considering only the first use (no reuse and/or storage) of PBDE-containing products, approximately 60% of the stock of PBDEs in 2014 or ∼70,000 tonnes, of which 95% is decaBDE, will remain in the use phase in 2020. Total emissions to air of all PBDEs from the in-use product stock was estimated at 70-700 tonnes between 1970 and 2020, with annual emissions of 0.4-4 tonnes·y(-1) for each of penta- and octaBDE and 0.35-3.5 tonnes·y(-1) for decaBDE in 2014.

Characterizing the sorption of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) to cotton and polyester fabrics under controlled conditions

“…PBDEs, available as three commercial mixtures differing in bromination, were used as additive flame retardants in a wide variety of products, including textiles such as curtains and upholstery fabric (e.g., Abbasi et al, 2015). Although new production of commercial penta-and octa-BDE mixtures came under national and international control starting in 2003 and deca-BDE has also been slated for control (UNEP, 2010(UNEP, , 2013Environment Canada, 2013), PBDEs remain one of the most prevalent classes of flame retardant found indoors (Bradman et al, 2014;Abbasi et al, 2016 inter alia).…”

Five-year trends of selected halogenated flame retardants in the atmosphere of Northeast China

“…The estimated consumption of three commercial polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) mixtures, i.e. Penta-BDE, Octa-BDE and Deca-BDE, from 1970 to 2020 in in-use products were approximately 46,000, 25,000 and 380,000 tonnes, respectively (Abbasi et al, 2015).…”

Prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers and child attention problems at 3–7years

“…The etiology of attention problems and ADHD is poorly understood. Research supports the role of both genetic (Barkley, 2000) and environmental factors (Banerjee et al, 2007; Polanska et al, 2012), including early life exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a class of halogenated flame retardants that have been used in large quantities (3–30% by product weight) to reduce the flammability of consumer products (textiles, furniture containing polyurethane foam, plastics, and wire insulation) manufactured and imported into the United States (Abbasi et al, 2015). …”

“…Corporation, 2005). Despite this phase out, environmental contamination and human exposure are expected to persist owing to the stability of PBDEs in environmental media and their continued release from existing consumer products (Abbasi et al, 2015). …”