State-led agricultural subsidies drive monoculture cultivar cashew expansion in northern Western Ghats, India

Abstract

Agricultural commodity production constitutes an important livelihood source for farmers but significantly contributes to tropical deforestation and biodiversity loss. While the socioecological effects of agricultural commodities such as palm oil, cocoa and coffee are well studied, the effects for commodities such as cashew (Anacardium occidentale) have received less attention. Global cultivated area for cashew increased rapidly from 526,250 ha in 1980 to ~5.9 million ha in 2018. India is the world’s second largest cashew producer, with cashew farms often occurring adjacent to remnant forests. To mitigate deforestation for cashew expansion, it is necessary to understand present-day land use policies and management practices that drive this expansion. Through semi-structured interviews (n = 65) and a literature review on agricultural policies in India, we evaluated the role of state-led land use policies in cashew expansion and characterised present-day cashew farming systems in the Sawantwadi-Dodamarg landscape in India. Agricultural subsidies introduced from 1980s to 1990s encouraged cultivar cashew expansion and influenced land use conversion from rice and privately owned forest to cashew. Farmers preferred cultivar cashew as they produced higher yields faster, although they required more agrochemical inputs and were susceptible to pests and wildlife depredation. About 80% of farmers had planted cashew farms by clearing forests in the past 30 years and expressed interest to continue the same. Farmers avoided applying for government-sponsored compensation for crop losses due to wildlife depredation and chose instead to expand cultivar cashew into forested areas. Our study deepens the understanding of how government-led agricultural subsidies drive farmers’ uptake of cashew cultivars, farmers’ cashew management practices, and how these factors drive deforestation in this landscape at the state and farm level. We recommend further research with equitable stakeholder participation in cashew farming systems to devise sound planning for forest conservation and sustainability standards for the cashew industry.

Effects of land use change and elevation on endemic shrub frogs in a biodiversity hotspot

“…If the populations of females, which occur in much lower densities than males, are impacted, it will result in the shrub frog populations crashing. Moreover, we demonstrate that Pseudophilautus , which has been thought to be a generalist and resilient species (Sankararaman et al, 2021), is negatively impacted by cashew plantations, which are rapidly increasing in the landscape (Rege & Lee, 2022) and currently occupy almost a third of the geographic area of the Dodamarg and Sawantwadi Taluks where the study was conducted. This is an important consideration for the IUCN Redlist Status assessment, which recently downlisted these two endemic species from Threatened category to Least Concern (IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2021).…”

“…However, a recent study suggests chronic human disturbance has converted evergreen forests into deciduous forests across low and high elevations (Biswas et al, 2024). The area has witnessed significant conversion of private forests into cashew, rubber, and pineapple plantations in recent decades (Rege & Lee, 2022; Munje & Kumar, 2022; Biswas et al, 2023). Within our study area, five species of Rhacophorid frogs are found, including the three species of shrub frogs - Pseudophilautus amboli , P. wynaadensis , and Raorchestes bombayensis - although P .…”

“…Agroforestry is also positioned as a vital climate solution, as it is believed to aid in restoring degraded lands, halting forest degradation, and contributing to biodiversity conservation (FAO, 2024). However, in many tropical regions, forests are being converted into agroforestry plantations (Rege & Lee, 2022), leading to forest and biodiversity loss. Furthermore, the impacts of agroforestry plantations on biodiversity vary.…”

Conservation value of low-elevation forests for birds in agroforestry-dominated landscapes in a biodiversity hotspot

“…We studied in the northern Western Ghats of Maharashtra state, India, between January and May 2022. While the forests in the southern Western Ghats have been mostly converted to tea, coffee and rubber, the privately-owned forests of northern Western Ghats are being rapidly converted to mango, cashew, and rubber (Rege & Lee, 2022).…”

Interplay of Government Support and Foreign Investment in Enhancing R&D in China’s Strategic Sectors

“…Businesses differentiate themselves from one another through their internal core knowledge and unique capabilities, which are valuable, difficult for competitors to imitate, and non-replicable. Their profitability and competitive advantage stem from their enterprise heterogeneity, which is fueled by factors like productivity, enterprise size, ownership, and industry (Jia et al, 2021;Li et al, 2023;Rege & Lee, 2022;Zaman & Zaccour, 2021).…”