State Engagement with Farmer-led Irrigation Development: Symbolic Irrigation Modernisation and Disturbed Development Trajectories in Tanzania

Abstract

Farmer-led irrigation development, a process in which farmers initiate the establishment of irrigation, is increasingly recognised as the driving force behind irrigation expansion, agricultural intensification, and commercialisation in sub-Saharan Africa. Governments and development agencies aim to build upon these practices to further stimulate agricultural production and expand the irrigated area. In what seems the recognition of farmers' ability to take the lead, various African states have developed policies for 'demanddriven irrigation development'. This article scrutinises the actual practices of such a policy through a case analysis of an intervention in Northern Tanzania. The analysis demonstrates how even demand-driven policies can disturb the development trajectory of farmer-led irrigation development by reinforcing modernisation ideals adhered to by both farmers and government employees. An emphasis on the aesthetics of modernity leads to symbolic modernisation, cementing the dominant role of the state and formal expertise and paralysing farmers' irrigation development initiatives. This does not necessarily lead to agricultural intensification and commercialisation, which the formal policies seem to aim for and which is central to processes of farmer-led irrigation development.

Research and development needs in agricultural water management to achieve sustainable development goals*1

“…In recent years, there has been an increase in farmer-led irrigation outside formal irrigation schemes (de Bont et al, 2019), with farmers using a range of agricultural water management techniques. The existence of untapped shallow groundwater sources and increased access to cheaper pumps, has led to an increase in groundwater irrigation.…”

Growth and inequality at the micro scale: an empirical analysis of farm incomes within smallholder irrigation systems in Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Mozambique

“…In a review of studies across SSA, Thorbecke (2012) explains that the interconnection between growth and inequality may lead many households to remain trapped in vicious circles of poor education, health and livelihoods. In the context of rural development, particularly that of smallholders, irrigation is often suggested as an effective strategy for welfare and development (De Bont & Veldwisch, 2020;Kannan & Anandhi, 2020;Nonvide, 2018), yet a growing body of literature raises fundamental questions regarding its implications for equity and social justice (Giordano & De Fraiture, 2014;Gorantiwar & Smout, 2005;Lefore et al, 2019;Van den Berg & Ruben, 2006). As noted by Lipton et al (2003, p. 414), 'the poor are not a homogenous group', and thus irrigation may impact them differently.…”

Who is Likely to Benefit from Public and Private Sector Investments in Farmer-led Irrigation Development? Evidence from Ethiopia

“…Irrigation development in developing countries has seen a fundamental shift from large-scale canal irrigation to small-scale localised irrigation also known as farmer-led irrigation. Farmer-led irrigation development is defined as a process where individual farmers or small farmer groups drive the establishment, improvement, and expansion of irrigation (de Bont & Veldwisch, 2020;Izzi, Denison, & Veldwisch, 2021;Woodhouse et al, 2017). Therefore, farmer-led irrigation (FLI) can be characterised by attributes such as: (1) entrepreneurship and risk-taking behaviour of the farmer; (2) heterogeneity of irrigation technologies and farming systems; (3) capitalisation which follows the commercial nature of (re)investments and logic into irrigation technologies and agricultural input; and (4) collaboration of farmers with other actors along agricultural value chains (Minh & Schmitter, 2021).…”