Squamate bone taphonomy: A new experimental framework and its application to the Natufian zooarchaeological record

Abstract

Squamate (lizard and snake) remains are abundant in the terminal Pleistocene Natufian archaeological sites of the Levant, raising the question of whether they constitute part of the broad-spectrum diet characteristic of this period. However, the role of squamates in Natufian diets remains unclear, as they are taphonomically under-studied. We conducted a series of experiments and actualistic observations that tested the impact of pre-and post-depositional processes on squamate vertebrae. We emphasized the multiple destruction processes that leave overlapping or altered marks on the bones, such as digestion marks that were modified by trampling. The resulting bone modification typology provides a tool for studying archaeological squamate remains. the experimental data were compared to the archaeological bone samples of the Natufian sequence of el-Wad Terrace (Mount Carmel, Israel, 15,000-12,000 cal BP). The Natufian squamate samples deviate from all actualistic ones in their lesser evidence of digestion and much greater indications for trampling, erosion and breakage. the taphonomic study, coupled with intra-site analysis, has unraveled the complex depositional history of el-Wad terrace, enabling us to differentiate between cultural and non-cultural contexts and to identify possible human consumption of the European glass lizard and the large whip snake in the Natufian. Squamate (lizard and snake) remains have been sporadically studied in zooarchaeology 1-12 , and rarely has their role in human subsistence been established (but see 8). These remains are known to have been abundant in the early sedentary hamlets of the Natufian culture of the Levant 13 (late Epipaleolithic, ca. 15,000-11,700 cal BP), together with abundant small game remains and naturally-deposited micro-mammals. This raises the question of squamate accumulation mechanisms and especially whether they were part of the broad human subsistence that characterized this period 13-16. The site of el-Wad Terrace (EWT), Mount Carmel, Israel (Fig. 1), one of the major Natufian hamlets of the Levantine Mediterranean region, includes both the Early Natufian (EN) and the Late Natufian (LN) phases, the former characterized by numerous architectural sub-phases 17,18. Recent excavations at the site have exposed dense layers with extremely rich lithic and faunal assemblages that include a high percentage of squamate remains 13. The expansion of diet breadth to include a wide variety of game, often referred to as the Broad Spectrum Revolution (BSR 19), which arguably marks considerable resource intensification, is a prominent topic in Natufian studies. Broadening Natufian diets may signal an early shift to sedentism among the foraging groups of the terminal Pleistocene Levant 13,20-24. This process could be instrumental in the Neolithization process that immediately succeeded the Natufian 25. While squamates are abundant at many Natufian sites and at EWT in particular, they are usually excluded from human subsistence studies that attempt to establish diet breadth by ...

The anurans and squamates assemblage from Final Natufian Eynan (Ain Mallaha, Israel) with an emphasis on snake-human interactions

“…Dorsal parts (neural arch) were probably further broken and crushed, and were therefore never recovered at the site. We further checked if this pattern was more abundant on vertebrae that have signs of fire discoloration since burning is reported as enhancing post-depositional breakage for snake vertebrae [ 12 ]. No correlation was found however, 36% of the "less than half vertebra" show signs of exposure to fire, a very similar degree to that of other large “colubrine” vertebrae.…”

“…For the snake vertebrae alterations, we followed the five digestion categories as published and well-illustrated by Lebreton et al [ 36 ] that were available to us for comparison. However, we merely referred to the categories for measuring the degree and location of modifications on vertebrae, without deducing if they were produced by digestion or corrosion by other agents (referred to as erosion by Lev et al [ 12 ]). The reason is that, although some differences in the types of modification produced by digestion and corrosion were reported (e.g.…”

“…The reason is that, although some differences in the types of modification produced by digestion and corrosion were reported (e.g. regular edges versus irregular edges [ 12 ]), the distinction between them is not always straightforward [ 29 ]. The categories that were followed (after Lebreton et al [ 36 ]) are: (0), non digested (here not affected); (1) at least one of the diapophysis or parapophysis affected; (2) the addition of prezygapophyseal processes to the previous areas affected; (3) the addition of the condyle; (4) the addition of lamellar bone loss (Figs 8 and 9 in [ 36 ]).…”

“…As a result, snake bones recovered at prehistoric sites in Israel are often from an uncertain origin and not included in the dietary analysis [ 5 , 6 ], and the possibility that large snakes, especially large “colubrines” (see our definition of “colubrine” in the data collection section) were human prey is left open [ 5 ]. However, occasionally snakes vertebrae that were retrieved from Upper Paleolithic contexts [ 7 ], but mostly from assemblages dated towards the end of the Paleolithic periods, were reported as being part of the human diet and classified as food refuse [ 8 – 12 ].…”

Between Two Models: Exploring Exchange and Direct Procurement Strategies for Natufian Food Processing Tools of el-Wad Terrace, Israel

“…The site of el-Wad Terrace (EWT) in Mount Carmel (Israel) illustrates this well. Its inhabitants drew on a broad spectrum of resources, including plants, animals [9][10][11][12][13] , ochre 14 and int 15,16 , all of which derive from within the site's immediate vicinity. For hunted ungulates, this pattern is manifested in the comparatively complete body-part pro les, indicating that the hunt took place close by and that one did not have to haul the catch over great distances 17 .…”