Spring types and contributing aquifers from water-chemistry and multivariate statistical analyses for seeps and springs in Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota, 2018

Abstract

Samples from rain collectors were collected when enough daily precipitation accumulated in the collectors. Sampled precipitation events during the study period were in May, June, July, August, and September 2018. Physical properties of sampled water-temperature, pH, and specific conductance-were measured in the field. Water samples were analyzed for stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen and for chloride concentration. Recharge rates for aquifers supplying springs were determined using precipitation volume and chloride concentrations for a 12-day period before the sample-collection date. Multivariate statistical analysis methods used on water-chemistry data included principal component analysis, cluster analysis, and end-member mixing analysis. Water composition was used to determine the spring type and contributing aquifers for 11 springs in the North and South Units of Theodore Roosevelt National Park from analyses of water-chemistry data between May and September 2018. In the North Unit, Achenbach Spring was classified as a filtration spring with water from an unconfined part of the upper Fort Union aquifer and infiltration of precipitation. Hagen Spring, Mandal Spring, and Stevens Spring were classified as contact springs supplied by semiconfined parts of the upper Fort Union aquifer. Overlook Spring at one time may have been a natural spring or seep but now is a developed spring that behaves like a flowing artesian well completed in a confined part of the upper Fort Union aquifer. In the South Unit, six springs were classified into two spring types: filtration and contact springs. Boicourt Spring and Sheep Butte Spring were classified as filtration springs that have water supplied by unconfined parts of the upper Fort Union aquifer and infiltrated precipitation. Big Plateau Spring, Lone Tree Spring, Sheep Pasture Spring, and Southeast Corner Spring were classified as contact springs that receive waters from a semiconfined part of the upper Fort Union aquifer. from the ground and flows or forms pools (Bryan, 1919). Springs commonly form when the side of a hill, a valley bottom, or other excavations intersect flowing groundwater at or below the local water table (U.S. Geological Survey, 2019). Seeps are a type of spring in which the water flows from pores in the ground over considerable areas (Bryan, 1919). Seeps occur from a slow movement of water through Unconfined aquifer water table Unconfined aquifer water table Rotational slump or landslide Low permeability unit Low permeability unit EXPLANATION Spring Groundwater level Groundwater flow direction Filtration Confined aquifer hydraulic head Confined aquifer hydraulic head spring or seep Flowing artesian spring Upper contact spring Lower contact spring Figure 3. Types of springs in the study area.

Hydrogeologic characteristics of Hourglass and New Years Cave Lakes at Jewel Cave National Monument, South Dakota, from water-level and water-chemistry data, 2015–21

“…All stable isotope samples were depleted in heavy isotopes compared with the GMWL (more negative δ 2 H and δ 18 O values) and indicated a greater degree of evaporation from environmental factors, such as latitude, continental position (near coasts versus far inland), and altitude (Dansgaard, 1964;Rozanski and others, 1993). Medler and Eldridge (2021) provide a summary of the effect of latitude, continental position, and altitude on isotopic composition of precipitation. The most notable effects on the δ 2 H and δ 18 O compositions in the study area were from the latitude and continental effects because the study area is at a high latitude (between 43-and 44-degrees north latitude) and near the center of the North American continent.…”

Hydrogeochemical Assessment of Selected Springs Water in Aqra Area, Duhok Governorate, Northern Iraq

“…Moreover, springs are a major source of drinking water, agriculture, and industries in many cities around the world as the water of these springs is of high quality, and on many occasions, it doesn't need filtering or purification before consumption (Awadh and Al-Ghani, 2014;Al-Hamdani et al, 2016). Springs can be defined as those spots of land from which water spurts naturally or forming ponds (Boschetti et al, 2018;Medler& Eldridge, 2021). Also, there is another term, which is seep that stands for a sort of springs that emerge due to the slow movement of water through the slits, pores, and rock perforations and flow out from the surface (U.S. Geological Survey, 2019) and this type of springs is the one that exists in the study area.…”