Sports participation and muscle mass affect sex-related differences in bone mineral density between male and female adolescents: A longitudinal study

Abstract

Bone health has become a concern in modern society due to the economic burden and impairment in quality of life caused by osteoporosis. 1 Osteoporotic fractures increase both healthcare costs and the risk of early mortality. 2-4 Taking into account the epidemiology of osteoporosis, women exhibit greater risk of developing osteoporosis than do men. This greater risk for the female sex is strongly determined by specific events that occur during adolescence. 5 The current literature shows how childhood and adolescence are complex phases that are critical periods for the development of bone mineral density (BMD) accrual. There is increasing acceptance of the hypothesis that osteoporosis may be a pediatric metabolic disease, with manifestations during adulthood. 6 Therefore, the peak bone mass reached during this period is a determinant of BMD observed during adulthood, and this constitutes a relevant determinant of the risk of osteoporosis in adulthood. 7 Among the variables capable of affecting bone health, sports participation plays an important role in the process of boosting bone gains during childhood and adolescence. 8 Thus, it is important to consider sports and resistance training as relevant tools for improving bone mineral density (BMD) 8-9 and joint stability, with consequently stronger bones. 11 Another relevant fact is that the rate of sports participation may differ between boys and girls, such that it is higher among males. 9,10-13 Moreover, during adolescence, there are several correlates affecting sex-related differences in gains of bone mineral content among athletes and non-athletes, such as maturation, muscle mass and dietary factors. 14,15

The Impact of Sport-discipline and Sex on Physical Fitness and Bone Markers in Athletes

“…Our results are also in agreement with several studies that have shown elevated levels of bone metabolic turnover in male athletes with different types of exercise (e. g. running, swimming, soccer) compared to female 7 18 23 26 . Nevertheless, some studies have demonstrated the modification of bone metabolic turnover with sex difference in athlete’s population 35 40 41 . Matsumoto et al 35 showed that the status of bone metabolic turnover in male judo athletes in training may be hypermetabolic, as well as that of female judo athletes with regular menses cycles.…”

Relationships of Bone Mineral Variables with Body Composition, Blood Hormones and Training Volume in Adolescent Female Athletes with Different Loading Patterns

“…In accordance, appendicular muscle mass was associated with areal bone mineral values in all studied groups in the present study. Muscle mass has been suggested to be the main pathway through which any physical exercise including athletic activity can improve part of the osteogenic process in adolescents during maturation [ 34 , 39 , 40 ]. However, although appendicular muscle mass was related to bone mineral values in SW athletes and they had the highest values of aerobic performance, their bone mineral values were lower than in the RG group.…”